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African Americans and Women in WWII America

     

The Experience of African Americans

In the Armed Forces

Before

    •  US airforce barred Black pilots.

    •  Marines limited Black soldiers to cooks, transport, or labouring roles.

    •  Navy only allowed Black mess men; in 1943, > 100k African Americans served, but 0 Black officers.

    •  Black soldiers denied officer training.

Advances

    •  1.2m African Americans fought in WWII.

    •   Airmen (332nd fighter group) created; 1,000 Black pilots by war's end.

    •  761st Tank Battalion (‘black panthers’) fought in the Battle of the Bulge (1944).

    •  17th company rescued wounded soldiers, but also fought at Peleliu (1944).

    •  Black officers were trained; African American women became nurses.

    •  400 Navajo Americans served as .

    •  NAACP reduced sentences of Black soldiers after Port Chicago mutiny, & Guam riot.

    •  Black servicemen/women returned more confident, ready to challenge discrimination.

Caveats

    •  Military stayed segregated (‘Jim Crow Army’): unequal treatment, inferior facilities.

    •  Black recruits (1942) restricted on base & assigned inactive duty.

    •  In PoW camps, German prisoners used white facilities barred to Black soldiers.

    •  Black officers commanded only Black troops; Black nurses treated only Black men.

    •   explosion (1944) revealed unsafe work conditions for African Americans.

    •  Racial tensions in Guam (1944): white Marines killed Black Marines; Black Marines punished for retaliation.

 

In the Workplace

Before

    •  Black workers held worst jobs, paid less than white workers for same roles.

Advances

    •  1m African Americans moved from rural South to urban North/West.

    •  By 1944, ~2m Black workers employed in war industries inc ‘white jobs,’ boosting confidence.

    •  A. Philip Randolph’s planned protest (1941) → outlawed war industry discrimination; Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) set up to enforce it.

    •  1944 Supreme Court: unions must fairly represent Black & white workers.

Caveats

    •  Black workers earned less, faced discriminatory hiring/promotions.

    •  Many dismissed post-war as white soldiers returned.

    •  Continued housing/education discrimination (eg Levittown for white veterans only).

    •  1943 racial tensions → Detroit riots & ‘ Riots’ vs Mexican Americans.

    •  FEPC lacked authority; ignored in South; defunded in 1946.

    •  White workers struck to stop hiring Black workers in ‘white jobs’. 1944 ‘fair representation’ ruling ignored.

 

Civil Rights

Before

    •  Jim Crow Laws, segregation, & racial violence entrenched.

Advances

    •  WWII energized Black civil rights; ‘’ Campaign (victory vs fascism abroad & racism at home).

    •  NAACP membership increased: 50k → 450k.

    •  CORE founded (1942); first sit-ins vs segregated restaurants (1943) and bus segregation defiance.

Caveats

    •  22 African Americans (incl. veterans) lynched 1941–46.

    •  Black soldiers returned to unchanged segregation & white supremacy in South.

    •  Truman’s civil rights attempts (1948) defeated in Congress. Executive Order 9981 desegregated military, but not implemented until Korean War.

 

 

The Experience of Women

In the Armed Forces

 Before

    •  Few women in army, mainly as nurses, telephonists, or cooks.

Advances

    •  350k women served in WAC, WASP, WAVES, Marine Corps Reserve.

    •  Roles: mechanics, pilots, drivers, air traffic controllers, weather forecasters; Navy built decryption machines called Bombes.

    •  Sallie Braun ran San Francisco Army Port alone.

    •  1948: the Women's Act allowed women permanent military roles.

Caveats

    •  Servicewomen faced public/military discrimination.

    •  Women of color faced double burden of racism & sexism. Navy excluded Black women until 1944.

    •  Most servicewomen discharged after war; units disbanded.

    •  Women veterans denied GI Bill benefits.

 

In the Workplace

Before

    •  Married/middle-class women worked mainly in teaching/nursing; wage discrimination common.

    •  Unions opposed women in workforce.

Advances

    •  1940–45: women workers rose 12m → 19m; ⅓ of jobs filled by women.

    •  3m volunteered for Red Cross; 200k worked in shipbuilding (vs 36 in 1939).

    •  Roles: munitions, electronics, welding, machining (‘’ icon).

    •  Women seen as efficient by Dept of Labor.

    •   ($20m) funded war nurseries for 550k children.

    •  Work experience → independence & self-belief.

Caveats

    •  Sexual harassment common; workplace media sexualized women.

    •  Women held only 4% of skilled jobs & earned > men.

    •  Unions promised women’s work was temporary.

    •  Women of color faced heightened racism/discrimination.

    •  Post-war, most women laid off; no lasting wage gains.

    •  Lanham funding ended; US has never had universal childcare since.

 

Civil Rights

Before

    •  Most women accepted traditional roles as wives/mothers.

Advances

    •  WWII normalized women in diverse roles; public praise shifted to competence/intelligence.

    •  The National Federation of Women's Clubs (BPW) advocated for workforce rights, developing a skills classification system.

Caveats

    •  Many women returned to traditional roles post-war.

    •  Wartime ‘quickie’ marriages caused relationship issues.

    •  Second-wave feminism emerged only in the 1960s.