• Member of (NoI), which demanded a separate Black state in South. Criticized King as a "fool" & advocated violence if necessary. Shifted focus from civil rights to economic & social issues.
• Fame grew after 1959 TV doc. Assassinated in 1965.
1962: Black is Beautiful
• Rooted in Harlem Renaissance; challenged European beauty ideals.
• African ’s 1962 fashion show celebrated Black identity – Afros, dashikis, bright colors.
• Expanded into broader Black identity movement: term "African-American" replaced "Negro."
1964: CORE ‘Freedom Houses’
• Poverty & unemployment rife in Northern ghettos: 70% youth unemployed, only 32% graduated high school.
• CORE set up info centres on housing, education & jobs.
• SNCC’s 1966 ‘’ cleared waste & encouraged Black voting.
1965: Watts Riots & More
• Watts Riots in Los Angeles began with arrest of Black drunk-driver. From 1964-68, 238 riots in 200+ cities caused 250 deaths & $billions in damages.
1965:
• Formed in Bogalusa, Louisiana, on Malcolm X’s assassination day. Armed group protected civil rights workers from KKK & retaliated against threats.
1966: Black Power
• SNCC under Stokely Carmichael expelled white members; rejected non-violence for militant ‘Black Power’. His successor Rap Brown incited riots.
• CORE under Floyd McKissick followed suit, expelling white members (1968).
1966: Black Panthers
• Founded by Huey Newton in response to Watts Riots & police brutality.
• Ten-Point Program demanded rights like housing & justice. Set up clinics, ambulances, free meals.
• police patrols; led to CA hiring Black officers proportional to population.
1966: Meredith March
• Activist James Meredith shot during solo march vs racism. SNCC turned it into a platform for Black Power.
1967: Where Do We Go From Here?
• King reflected after Chicago rejection & disagreements with SNCC. Advocated tackling poverty with ‘guaranteed income’ & opposed Vietnam War.
• Banned discrimination in housing to allow Black Americans access to white neighbourhoods.
1969:
• Nixon doubled aid to Black businesses, and increased federal purchases from $13m (1969) to $142m (1971).
1969: Affirmative Action
• Nixon’s ‘’ set quotas for minority hiring. Ensured fair treatment by contractors.
1971: Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg
• Approved desegregation of schools via & compensatory education. By 1972, 92% of Black students attended desegregated schools. However, some educational outcomes worsened in integrated schools.
1972: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
• Nixon expanded the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission’s enforcement power, doubled its funding, & quadrupled its staff to combat workplace discrimination.
The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
General Evaluation
• Legislation improved equality before the law but didn’t resolve economic/social disparities.
- Black voter registration in the South rose from 27% (1964) to 59% (1969).
- Black local govt representation quadrupled 1962–1980; doubled local govt spending in Black communities.
• Challenges:
- White voter cancelled out Black vote.
- Black turnout surpassed 60% only in Obama elections; youth turnout <30% in the 1970s.
- Few Black politicians: only 10 Black Senators since 1965; Black Representatives = 1.25% of total.
Health Care (Simkins v. Moses H. Cone, 1963 & Civil Rights Act, 1964)
• Banned segregated health services.
- Limited impact: Black male mortality 53% greater than white mortality (1940), still 46% greater in 1984.
- Black infant mortality & life expectancy gaps persisted into the 1980s.
Housing (Fair Housing Act, 1968)
• Outlawed housing discrimination.
- HOWEVER segregation persisted: 1987 study found Black & white residential segregation still high due to economic & social factors.
- BUT: Suburban migration improved housing: 1950, 50% of Black homes lacked flush toilets; 1980, just 6%.
Education (Title IV, 1964)
• Enforced public school desegregation.
- Schools technically equal, but segregation persisted due to local demographics.
- Black college enrolment increased 550% (1962–2019), but attainment lagged 10% behind whites.
• Affirmative action advanced professions: 1970–1990, Black professors doubled; attorneys up 6x.
• Challenges linked to inner-city poverty, not school quality or race.
Employment (Title VII, 1964)
• Banned employment discrimination.
- Black male hourly wages: rose from 61% (1960) to 74% of white men’s (1980); Black women’s wages nearly equal to white women’s by 1985.
- Black unemployment double white since 1950s; lack of skills & criminal records were barriers.
• Number in managerial roles improved slightly but stayed far below whites.
• Key employment advances (eg leaving domestic service) predated the Civil Rights Act.
Poverty (Economic Opportunity Act, 1964 & Great Society)
• Black poverty fell 1960–1970 (from 55% → <35%) but plateaued after 1970.
- 2018: 20% of Black families in poverty (3x white).
• Wealth disparity: white families’ = 7x Black families’ in 1963 & 2013.
• Poverty strongly tied to inner-city residence & single-parent families, not race.
The Fight for Equality, 1965-75
1959: Malcolm X: The Hate that Hate Produced
• Member of NATION OF ISLAM (NoI), which demanded a separate Black state in South. Criticized King as a "fool" & advocated violence if necessary. Shifted focus from civil rights to economic & social issues.
• Fame grew after 1959 TV doc. Assassinated in 1965.
1962: Black is Beautiful
• Rooted in Harlem Renaissance; challenged European beauty ideals.
• African JAZZ-ART SOCIETY’s 1962 fashion show celebrated Black identity – Afros, dashikis, bright colors.
• Expanded into broader Black identity movement: term "African-American" replaced "Negro."
1964: CORE ‘Freedom Houses’
• Poverty & unemployment rife in Northern ghettos: 70% youth unemployed, only 32% graduated high school.
• CORE set up info centres on housing, education & jobs.
• Banned discrimination in housing to allow Black Americans access to white neighbourhoods.
1969: BLACK CAPITALISM
• Nixon doubled aid to Black businesses, and increased federal purchases from $13m (1969) to $142m (1971).
1969: Affirmative Action
• Nixon’s ‘PHILADELPHIA PLAN’ set quotas for minority hiring. Ensured fair treatment by contractors.
1971: Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg
• Approved desegregation of schools via BUSSING & compensatory education. By 1972, 92% of Black students attended desegregated schools. However, some educational outcomes worsened in integrated schools.
1972: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
• Nixon expanded the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission’s enforcement power, doubled its funding, & quadrupled its staff to combat workplace discrimination.
The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
General Evaluation
• Legislation improved equality before the law but didn’t resolve economic/social disparities.
