• WWII → more women in jobs. By 1960, 2x as many women worked cf 1940; 40% of women 16+ had jobs.
• Job restrictions: eg couldn’t lift >11kg, be a policewoman, firefighter, or broadcaster (voice deemed ‘shrill’), or enter many professions (eg only 7% of doctors, 4% of lawyers).
• Kennedy’s Commission on Women found that women earned 59% of men’s wages (1963).
• Stewardesses faced rules on weight/marital status. Gloria Steinem exposed exploitation of Playboy ‘Bunnies’.
• Working wives demanded family decision-making power + shared housework → more divorce.
b. Home and Momism
• 1940s glorified ‘motherhood’ ∵ women were suited to homemaking (working women = ‘neurotic feminists’.)
• 1960s: challenged ‘momism’ → over-protected kids & housewives lacked self-worth. Working mothers = positive role models.
c. Over-qualification
• Educated women → forced into housework post-marriage.
• Legal inequalities: Married women couldn’t own purchases, sign contracts, serve on juries, or get credit cards without their husband’s signature. Marital rape ≠ crime until 1993 in all US states.
• The Feminine Mystique (1963, ): Exposed frustration & psychiatric issues from momism →
- (NOW, 1966): Advocated legal equality.
- National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) → demands to increase female political representation.
• Activism: Miss America protests (1968), bra-burning, 1970 Strike for Equality.
d. Activism
• Women in Black Civil Rights Movement & SDS → relegated to minor roles despite excelling in grassroots work.
• 1979: Sara Evans argued these experiences → motivation for feminist campaigns.
• Radical groups (eg NY Radical Women, Chicago Women’s Liberation Union) focused on grassroots action & consciousness-raising.
• (1969): Public protests, street theatre, ‘speak-outs’.
e. Media Popularisation
• Feminism indirectly spread by TV/film: eg
That Girl (1966–71) → independent female lead; Stepford Wives (1972) → attack on homemaker ideal.
• Ms Magazine (1971, ) → aired feminist issues.
f. Intersectionality
• 1980s: Feminism ≠ one-size-fits-all. Wealthy white women (eg Friedan) had advantages vs Black/poor women.
• Organisation (1973): addressed unique struggles of Black women.
Timeline
1961: Kennedy’s Commission on Women → little achieved.
1963: Equal Pay Act → slow progress (female wage still 82% of male wage in 2021).
1964: (Civil Rights Act) banned workplace gender discrimination.
1967: Johnson’s Executive Order 11375 opened male-only jobs to women.
1969: California’s no-fault divorce law.
1970: of Family Planning Act: Contraceptives = civil right.
1971: Bella Abzug elected to Congress.
1972: (Educational Amendments): Banned sex discrimination in federally funded education.
1972: passed by Congress → but failed ratification by states.
1972: : Right to abortion confirmed.
1975: Military Academies admitted women.
1978: Pregnancy Discrimination Act → workplace protection for pregnant women.
Did The Women's Movement Fail?
Gains:
• Women freer, more equal cf 1950s BUT:
Backlash:
• 1970s → New Right criticism: Feminists = ‘man-haters.’
• ERA opposition (): ERA = draft eligibility, loss of female-specific benefits. ERA ≠ ratified.
• 1972: Nixon vetoed national childcare system.
• Women in politics: Slow progress (1985: 24 Congresswomen; 2021: 28%).
• Wage gap persists (2021: Women = 82% of men’s wages). Only 11% of top 500 CEOs = women.
• Women of Color face greater discrimination.
• Internal divisions: Issues eg abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, sex work.
• 2017: #MeToo – sexual exploitation persists.
• 2022: Roe v Wade overturned → abortion restrictions in many states.
Roots of the Movement
a. Working Women
• WWII → more women in jobs. By 1960, 2x as many women worked cf 1940; 40% of women 16+ had jobs.
• Job restrictions: eg couldn’t lift >11kg, be a policewoman, firefighter, or broadcaster (voice deemed ‘shrill’), or enter many professions (eg only 7% of doctors, 4% of lawyers).
• Kennedy’s Commission on Women found that women earned 59% of men’s wages (1963).
• Stewardesses faced rules on weight/marital status. Gloria Steinem exposed exploitation of Playboy ‘Bunnies’.
• Working wives demanded family decision-making power + shared housework → more divorce.
b. Home and Momism
• 1940s glorified ‘motherhood’ ∵ women were suited to homemaking (working women = ‘neurotic feminists’.)
• 1960s: ALICE ROSSI challenged ‘momism’ → over-protected kids & housewives lacked self-worth. Working mothers = positive role models.
c. Over-qualification
• Educated women → forced into housework post-marriage.
• Legal inequalities: Married women couldn’t own purchases, sign contracts, serve on juries, or get credit cards without their husband’s signature. Marital rape ≠ crime until 1993 in all US states.
• The Feminine Mystique (1963, BETTY FRIEDAN): Exposed frustration & psychiatric issues from momism →
- NATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR WOMEN (NOW, 1966): Advocated legal equality.
- National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) → demands to increase female political representation.
• Activism: Miss America protests (1968), bra-burning, 1970 Strike for Equality.
d. Activism
• Women in Black Civil Rights Movement & SDS → relegated to minor roles despite excelling in grassroots work.
• 1979: Sara Evans argued these experiences → motivation for feminist campaigns.
• Radical groups (eg NY Radical Women, Chicago Women’s Liberation Union) focused on grassroots action & consciousness-raising.
• REDSTOCKINGS (1969): Public protests, street theatre, ‘speak-outs’.
e. Media Popularisation
• Feminism indirectly spread by TV/film: eg
That Girl (1966–71) → independent female lead; Stepford Wives (1972) → attack on homemaker ideal.
• Ms Magazine (1971, GLORIA STEINEM) → aired feminist issues.
f. Intersectionality
• 1980s: Feminism ≠ one-size-fits-all. Wealthy white women (eg Friedan) had advantages vs Black/poor women.
• NATIONAL BLACK FEMINIST Organisation (1973): addressed unique struggles of Black women.
Timeline
1961: Kennedy’s Commission on Women → little achieved.
1963: Equal Pay Act → slow progress (female wage still 82% of male wage in 2021).
1964: TITLE VII (Civil Rights Act) banned workplace gender discrimination.
1967: Johnson’s Executive Order 11375 opened male-only jobs to women.
1969: California’s no-fault divorce law.
1970: TITLE X of Family Planning Act: Contraceptives = civil right.
1971: Bella Abzug elected to Congress.
1972: TITLE IX (Educational Amendments): Banned sex discrimination in federally funded education.
1972: Equal Rights Act passed by Congress → but failed ratification by states.
1972: ROE V WADE: Right to abortion confirmed.
1975: Military Academies admitted women.
1978: Pregnancy Discrimination Act → workplace protection for pregnant women.
Did The Women's Movement Fail?
Gains:
• Women freer, more equal cf 1950s BUT:
Backlash:
• 1970s → New Right criticism: Feminists = ‘man-haters.’
• ERA opposition (PHYLLIS SCHLAFLY): ERA = draft eligibility, loss of female-specific benefits. ERA ≠ ratified.
• 1972: Nixon vetoed national CHILDCARE system.
• Women in politics: Slow progress (1985: 24 Congresswomen; 2021: 28%).
• Wage gap persists (2021: Women = 82% of men’s wages). Only 11% of top 500 CEOs = women.
• Women of Color face greater discrimination.
• Internal divisions: Issues eg abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, sex work.
• 2017: #MeToo – sexual exploitation persists.
• 2022: Roe v Wade overturned → abortion restrictions in many states.
