America 1945-73 Cascade

America 1945-73 [Revision Cascade]

This Cascade will give you points and ideas for writing an answer about any of the topics in the list. And, when it comes to revision, you can use it to test your memory of the points and ideas you might want to raise in the exam.

Click on the yellow arrows to reveal the paragraph points, and again to reveal ideas for developing the point.

I have given you five points for every topic but, in practical terms for the exam, you will probably get away with remembering three or four.

1. Economic Boom 1950-69: Aspects
- a. Economic Growth
  - The US economy grew 37% during the 1950s, esp. high-tech electronics, military and the aerospace industry.
- b. Affluent middle class
  - ‘Golden Age’ – 25% of Americans lived in the suburbs, 60% owned their own homes, the number of TVs rose from 3 million to 55 million
- c. Consumerism
  - The Stockdale Center in Minnesota, opened in 1956, was the first shopping mall. Conspicuous consumption was the marker of status
- d. Teenagers
  - The economy increasingly aimed at young people with – for the first time in History – money to spend. .
- e. Sham
  - No national system of health care, or of welfare benefits, 35% of the population were still living below the poverty line. Poverty for African Americans 3x higher than white Americans. Also excluded were the aged, the South, and Native, Mexicans & Hispanic Americans

2. Economic Boom 1950-69: Causes
- a. American Dream
  - An idealized version of American suburban life, with a well-kept home, modern conveniences, healthy living & morals, and a happy family life, drilled home by advertisers.
- b. International Trade
  - Bretton Woods agreement of 1944 stabilised world trade/ Marshall Plan (1948) created international demand/ 1947 GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) reduced tariffs.
- c. Government Policy
  - GI Bill/ Truman raised the minimum wage to 75c per hour/ the government introduced Keynesian economics (e.g. Inter-State Highway)
- d. Industrial modernisation
  - Advances in automation and production techniques/ large corporations/ innovations, particularly aerospace, electronics, and pharmaceuticals. .
- e. Money to spend
  - $200 billion of war bonds matured, and people went out and spent them/ the growth of Unions led to increased wages

3. Popular Culture: facts
- a. Music
  - Rock n Roll (e.g. Elvis Presley)/ California Sound (e.g. Beach Boys)/ Folk & protest (e.g. Bob Dylan)/ British Invasion (e.g. Beatles)/ Festivals (e.g. Woodstock)
- b. TV
  - e.g. I Love Lucy and Leave It to Beaver for adults; Captain Kangaroo and Mr Rogers' Neighbouhood for children
- c. Films
  - 1950s films reflected societal anxieties such as the Cold War and, teenage angst; the ‘New Hollywood’ of the 1960s saw gritty, shocking films with anti-heroes (e.g. Bonny & Clyde).
- d. Art & Literature
  - e.g Abstract impressionism (Jackson Pollock)/ pop artists (Andy Warhol)/ the Beat Generation (e.g. Jack Kerouac) .
- e. Fashion
  - '60s fashions saw the ‘Mod’ movement, featuring bold colours & mini-skirts/ the hippie movement introduced tie-dye, bell bottoms, and unisex clothing.

4. Youth Culture: facts
- a. Rebellion
  - disenchantment and a rejection of middle class materialism & the rat race – e.g. Catcher in the Rye
- b. Teenspeak
  - Phrases such as ‘swinging’ and ‘dullsville’
- c. Hippies
  - Timothy Leary: ‘Turn on, tune in, drop out’/ ‘Free love’ (‘the Summer of Love’, 1967), communes and communal living/ Naturism and care for the natural world (hence ‘flower power’ and ‘tree-huggers’).
- d. Drugs
  - The ‘psychedelic’ movement, and ‘trips’ created by drugs such as cannabis and LSD, or transcendental meditation (e.g. The Beatles). .
- e. Make Love not War
  - Anti-war protest and calls to ‘ban the bomb’ and ‘make love not war’

5. Students for a Democratic Society: facts
- a. Port Huron Statement
  - Its statement of principles – the Port Huron Statement – criticised racism and the horrors of the twentieth century, stating that ‘we may be the last generation’
- b. Civil Rights protests
  - At first it supported the Civil Rights movement
- c. University of Berkeley sit-in (1964)
  - In 1964, 3000 students at the University of Berkeley, California, staged a sit-down protest to prevent police arresting a student
- d. Vietnam and the Black Panthers
  - After 1965, it got involved in violent anti-Vietnam protests and the Black Panther movement .
- e. Weather Underground (1969)
  - In 1969, a faction called the Weather Underground organised riots in Chicago (called the ‘Days of Rage’) and bombed banks and government buildings

6. The Red Scare: causes
- a. The Truman Doctrine, 1947
  - America was a capitalist democracy which advocated freedom; the USSR a Communist dictatorship; the ‘Truman Doctrine’ (1947) advocated ‘containing’ communism
- b. The American Communist Party
  - The American Communist Party had 80,000 members in 1944; Truman's ‘Loyalty Order’ (1947) sacked 212 employees who supported the Soviet Union
- c. Red Menace, 1949
  - The film Red Menace (1949) imagined an America in danger from communism
- d. Fear of nuclear war
  - American schoolchildren watched the film Duck and Cover (1951) about what to do in a nuclear attack .
- e. A fear of enemies 'out there'
  - Science-fiction films such as Them! depicted society threatened by enemies ‘out there’

7. International events which provoked the Red Scare
- a. Marshall's visit to Europe, 1947
  - General Marshall returned to the USA believing that Europe was so poor all Europe was about to turn Communist – hence the Marshall Plan (1948)
- b. The Berlin blockade, 1948–49
  - Seen in the USA as an attempt to drive the USA from West Berlin, June 1948 – May 1949; for 318 days, the Americans supplied West Berlin by air
- c. Communist victory in China, 1949
  - In 1949, Communists led by Mao Zedong conquered China; the USA blocked China’s application to join the United Nations, and instead sent $4 billion in economic and military aid to Taiwan
- d. Russia's atomic bomb, 1949
  - Russia developed the atomic bomb in 1949, and this prompted the USA to enter into the arms race and to form NATO in 1955 .
- e. Invasion by North Korea of South Korea, 1950
  - In 1950 Communist North Korea invaded South Korea; the USA secured a UN resolution supporting South Korea and fought a war there – in 1953 they threatened to use the atomic bomb

8. Who supported McCarthyism: facts
- a. J Edgar Hoover and the FBI
  - The FBI (under its fanatically anti-Communist boss, J Edgar Hoover) fed the names of people it suspected to McCarthy to accuse
- b. The Minute Women
  - Right-wing political groups such as the American Legion and the Minute Women organised pro-McCarthy campaigns
- c. Opponents of civil rights and public welfare
  - Opponents of liberal reforms such as labour rights and public welfare programmes saw a chance to stop them by labelling them ‘Communist’
- d. Republicans
  - Republicans used McCarthyism to discredit left-wing Democrats .
- e. President Eisenhower
  - In 1953, President Eisenhower promised to ‘get tough’ on communism

9. Communist spy-scares 1945–53: facts
- a. Elizabeth Bentley, 1945
  - In 1945, Elizabeth Bentley, a Russian spy, defected; she named 80 Soviet spies working in the USA
- b. Federal Employee Loyalty Program, Mar 1947
  - Truman's ‘Loyalty Order’ (1947) sacked 212 government employees who supported the Soviet Union who had infiltrated the government
- c. The Hollywood Ten, Nov 1947
  - In 1947, ten Hollywood scriptwriters/actors were investigated and found to have been members of the Communist Party
- d. Alger Hiss, 1948
  - In 1948, Alger Hiss was accused of spying Espionage was not proved (he was found guilty of lying to HUAC about his Communist Party membership) .
- e. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, 1953
  - In 1953, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were found guilty of passing nuclear secrets to the Russians and executed. Three co-spies were imprisoned

10. What was McCarthyism: facts
- a. Ohio Republican Women’s Club speech, 1950
  - February 1950: McCarthy’s speech to the Ohio Republican Women’s Club about ‘enemies within’; he said the State Department was ‘thoroughly infested with Communists’
- b. The 'McCarthy Witch-Hunt'
  - He provoked a ‘Red Scare’ (the number of FBI agents doubled 1946–52)
- c. HUAC Permanent Committee of Investigation
  - McCarthy became Chairman of the HUAC Permanent Committee of Investigation
- d. The Communist Control Act, 1954
  - The Communist Control Act (1954) banned the Communist Party in the USA .
- e. The Senate removed McCarthy, 1954
  - In 1954, the Senate removed McCarthy as Chair of the Committee of Investigation, and the Supreme Court overturned a number of HUAC’s decisions.

11. McCarthy's methods: facts
- a. HUAC, 1950-54
  - 1950–54: the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) summoned 2,000 people (asking: ‘Are you now or have you ever been a Communist?’)
- b. Taking 'the Fifth' = guilty
  - People who ‘took the Fifth’ (refused to speak) were found guilty of espionage
- c. Refusing to name others = imprisoned
  - People were imprisoned when they refused to implicate friends
- d. The FBI used illegal methods
  - The FBI used wire-taps and burglary, and published false information about suspects .
- e. Red Channels pamphlet
  - The pamphlet Red Channels named suspected Communists, many falsely

12. McCarthyism's personal impacts: facts
- a. Blacklists
  - Employers drew up blacklists (e.g. Hollywood had a blacklist of 320 actors)
- b. 400 imprisoned – 25,000 lost their job
  - 400 imprisoned, 10,000 sacked and 15,000 resigned (including 300 actors)
- c. Homosexuals were sacked
  - Homosexuals were sacked as ‘sexual perverts’
- d. Suicides
  - Some of the accused committed suicide; Charlie Chaplin fled to Switzerland .
- e. Trade unions and the NAACP investigated
  - Liberal groups were investigated – e.g. civil rights campaigners, the National Lawyers Guild, trade unions and the NAACP

13. McCarthy's decline: causes
- a. Alcoholism and bullying
  - McCarthy was criticised for alcoholism; when some hearings were televised, McCarthy was seen to be a bully
- b. Opposition by actors and intellectuals
  - e.g. in 1953, Arthur Miller wrote the play, The Crucible (about the Salem witch-trials of the 17th century) as an attack on McCarthyism
- c. Opposition in the media
  - e.g. in 1954, TV newsman Ed Murrow attacked McCarthy in his See It Now topical news programme.
- d. The Army-McCarthy hearings
  - His public support declined after 1954, when he accused a retired army war hero, General Zwicker; when some hearings were televised, McCarthy was seen to be a bully .
- e. Court decisions against McCarthy
  - In 1957, a radio host, John Henry Faulk, successfully sued the editors of Red Channels for the loss of his job and income.

14. McCarthy's decline: facts
- a. McCarthywasm
  - After McCarthy's dismissal in 1954, President Eisenhower mocked McCarthyism as 'McCarthywasm'
- b. Arthur Miller – The Crucible, 1953
  - In 1953, Arthur Miller wrote the play, The Crucible (about the Salem witch-trials of the 17th century) as an attack on McCarthyism
- c. Ed Murrow – See It Now, 1954
  - In 1954, TV newsman Ed Murrow attacked McCarthy in his See It Now topical news programme.
- d. The Zwicker hearings, 1954
  - His public support declined after 1954, when he accused a retired army war hero, General Zwicker; when some hearings were televised, McCarthy was seen to be a bully .
- e. John Henry Faulk, 1957
  - In 1957, a radio host, John Henry Faulk, successfully sued the editors of Red Channels for the loss of his job and income.

15. McCarthyism: interpretations
- a. ‘'Americanism with its sleeves rolled'
  - McCarthy himself presented his actions as 'The Fight for America' (1952) against its enemies
- b. ‘'Witch-hunt' hysteria
  - The traditional interpretation of McCarthyism is that it was – as US journalist Fred Cook called it – The Nightmare Decade (1971) of ‘witch-hunt’ hysteria
- c. An excessive response
  - ‘Liberal’ historians acknowledge that there was a communist threat, but believe that the ‘Red Scare’ was an unnecessary and excessive response
- d. Bullying and false accusation
  - ‘Left’ historians have denied that there was any threat – Cook campaigned for many years to try to prove that Hiss was innocent .
- e. A response to a Communist threat
  - Recent historians have acknowledged that there was a very real threat from Communist espionage

16. Civil rights inequalities in America before 1950: facts
- a. Separate but equal
  - The principle of ‘separate but equal’ — in many southern states ‘Jim Crow laws’ segregated buses, shops, restaurants (20 states had segregated schools)
- b. Discrimination and poverty
  - Black people were generally the poor people, poorly educated, in menial jobs; in the north, black people lived in ghettoes
- c. Ku Klux Klan
  - The Ku Klux Klan — fiery crosses, lynchings to ‘keep the negro in his place’
- d. Prevented from voting
  - In some southern states black people were legally prevented from voting or sitting on juries; other states insisted they took literacy tests before they were allowed to register as voters .
- e. Bogus 'scientific racism'
  - Bogus ‘scientific racism’ claimed the black people were ‘an inferior race’

17. Civil Rights – progress before 1950: facts
- a. NAACP, 1909
  - The NAACP (under Charles Houston) had 450,000 members by 1945. It trained black lawyers and defended black people accused of crimes
- b. The 'Harlem Renaissance', 1930s
  - The Harlem cultural renaissance of the 1930s was based on Jazz and included black dancers, architects, artists, poets
- c. Fair Employment Practices Law, 1941
  - Fair Employment Practices law (1941) abolished discrimination in the defence industries
- d. CORE, 1942
  - James Farmer founded CORE (1942) to challenge segregation (e.g. they sat in ‘white’ seats on interstate buses) .
- e. UN Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
  - The UN Declaration of Human Rights (1948) opposed discrimination and racism

18. Impact of the Second World War: facts
- a. Self-image and ambition
  - It showed 1 million black soldiers a world beyond the cotton fields or ghetto, and gave them ambition; ‘I went into the army a nigger, I’m coming out a man’
- b. Dorie Miller
  - Individual examples of heroism (such as Dorie Miller) showed that black soldiers were just as brave and patriotic as white soldiers
- c. Fair Employment Practices Law, 1941
  - Fair Employment Practices Law (1941) abolished discrimination in the defence industries
- d. CORE, 1942
  - James Farmer founded CORE (1942) to challenge segregation (e.g. sat in ‘white’ seats on interstate buses) .
- e. Civil Rights Committee, 1946
  - Truman set up a Civil Rights Committee (1946): its report recommended anti-lynching laws, voting rights and desegregating interstate travel – its ideas never became law, but Truman abolished segregation in the armed forces in 1947

19. Brown versus Topeka: facts
- a. Background of segregation
  - ‘Jim Crow laws’ in southern states segregated buses, shops, diners (restaurants), 20 states had segregated schools
- b. Charles Scott and the NAACP
  - Topeka NAACP was looking for an incident to make into a ‘cause’; Charles Scott was its legal counsel
- c. Oliver Brown, 1951
  - Brown was a welder, local pastor and an NACCP supporter; Topeka School Board, Kansas tried to make his daughter attend a black school many miles away
- d. Brown v Topeka, 1954
  - A District Court ruled against Brown, but the NAACP took his case to the Supreme Court, which declared segregated schools unconstitutional .
- e. Nine states desegregated their schools
  - By 1956, nine states (300,000 children) had desegregated

20. Little Rock High School: facts
- a. The Blossom Plan, 1955
  - Virgil Blossom, Little Rock Superintendant of Schools, devised a plan of gradual integration, starting with a few black pupils
- b. The NAACP registered nine pupils, 1957
  - The NAACP registered nine black pupils to start school in September 1957; they were exceptionally bright, good students
- c. Governor Orval Faubus, 4 Sep 1957
  - Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, who opposed desegregation, sent in the National Guard to prevent the pupils enrolling; they were followed by a mob
- d. President Eisenhower intervenes, 24 Sep 1957
  - When Governor Faubus refused to change his mind, Eisenhower sent in the 101 Airborne Division of the US army to protect the students .
- e. The Lost Year, 1958-1959
  - Governor Faubus closed all Little Rock Schools for a year, rather than allow the black students to attend

21. Montgomery Bus Boycott: causes
- a. Background of segregation
  - After World War II, black people were less inclined to accept Jim Crow laws and loss of their civil rights
- b. Trouble on Montgomery buses
  - e.g. white bus drivers drove away before black passengers (who had to pay at the front but board at the back) had got back on the bus
- c. Claudette Colvin, Mar 1955
  - 15-year-old Claudette Colvin, an NAACP Youth member, was handcuffed and forcibly dragged off a bus when she refused to give up her seat to a white man
- d. Edgar Nixon
  - Edgar Nixon, local NAACP leader, was looking for an incident to make into a ‘cause’ .
- e. Rosa Parks, 1 Dec 1955
  - Parks was a trained NAACP activist; in 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man

22. Montgomery Bus Boycott: events
- a. Rosa Parks, 1 Dec 1955
  - On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. She was arrested and fined $10
- b. Montgomery Improvement Association, 5 Dec 1955
  - Local NAACP leader Edgar Nixon formed the MIA (led by Martin Luther King; the MIA asked only that seats should be on a first-come-first-served basis
- c. 381 days of walking, 1955-1956
  - For 381 days, black people refused to use the buses – they walked, organised car pools, or got free rides from black taxi drivers
- d. King’s home was firebombed, 30 Jan 1956
  - A White Citizens Council was organised to oppose the boycott; King’s home was firebombed by the KKK .
- e. Browder v Gayle, 20 Dec 1956
  - The NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court (1956), which ruled that segregated buses were unconstitutional

23. Montgomery Bus Boycott: effects
- a. The first civil rights victory
  - It was the first sustained mass protest, and it proved that black people could win
- b. Rosa Parks
  - Rosa Parks became a civil rights hero and an inspiration to others
- c. Martin Luther King
  - Martin Luther King became the civil rights leader. In particular, the boycott established his principles of non-violence and ‘direct action’
- d. All that walking for nothing
  - But it was the NAACP that had won (‘all that walking for nothing’ was the NAACP leader Thurgood Marshall’s view). .
- e. Retaliation, Jan 1956
  - The KKK drove intimidatingly through black areas, black riders were attacked, one pregnant woman was shot, 5 black churches bombed (Jan 1956)

24. Civil rights advances by 1960: facts
- a. The 'New Negro', 1957
  - In 1957, Martin Luther King spoke on TV about the 'New Negro' – "a person with a new self-respect [prepared to] stand up courageously for what he feels he deserves on the basis of the law"
- b. Principle: Non-violent direct action
  - The events of the 1950s established the principles of non-violent direct action
- c. Principle: Desegregation
  - Brown v Topeka (1954) and the Little Rock incident (1957) established the right of Black Americans to integrated education
- d. Principle: Integration
  - The Montgomery Bus victory established the right of Black Americans to desegregation on the buses .
- e. The Civil Rights Acts, 1957 and 1960
  - Made discrimination illegal, made it illegal to prevent someone voting and created the Federal Civil Rights Commission

25. Civil rights limitations by 1960: facts
- a. Southern Manifesto, 1956
  - In 1956, southern senators launched the Southern Manifesto to resist integration
- b. White ‘Citizens’ Councils’
  - White ‘Citizens’ Councils’ were set up to resist black rights/integration
- c. The Ku Klux Klan
  - The Ku Klux Klan revived; there were murders and bombings – in 1955, a fourteen-year old black boy, Emmett Till, was murdered for being cheeky to a white woman
- d. The Civil Rights Acts, 1957 and 1960
  - Made discrimination illegal but had no effective means of enforcement .
- e. Federal v State government
  - State legislatures still demanded the right to overrule the Federal government in civil rights matters

26. Martin Luther King: methods and leadership
- a. A Christian pastor fighting for justice
  - He was a Christian pastor and said it was a fight for justice
- b. We will meet violence with non-violence
  - He believed ‘we will meet violence with non-violence’
- c. Moderate who believed in integration
  - He was moderate and believed in integration with white Americans (which is why white politicians felt able to do business with him)
- d. Direct action and civil disobedience
  - He believed in ‘direct action’ and civil disobedience – challenging prejudice .
- e. Civil rights
  - He believed that ‘civil rights’ (especially the vote) were the vital thing; it would give black people the opportunity to better themselves

27. Martin Luther King: limitations
- a. SNCC developed the sit-ins
  - Sit-ins at diners (the first was at Greensboro in 1960) were a Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) idea.
- b. CORE instigated the freedom riders
  - The freedom riders (1961) were a CORE idea.
- c. SNCC organised the Freedom Summer
  - The Freedom Summer Schools (1964) were a SNCC initiative.
- d. King was not radical
  - After the Watts Riots of 1965, King went to live in Chicago, but his tactics did not work there; he quarrelled with the new, more radical black leaders such as Stokeley Carmichael .
- e. Watts Riots, 1965
  - By the time he was assassinated in 1968, King believed he had failed, saying: ‘The day of violence is here'

28. The Civil Rights movement: methods
- a. Sit-ins
  - e.g. the 1960 Greensboro sit-ins at ‘white’ diners, organised by SNCC
- b. Freedom riders
  - e.g. the freedom riders of 1947 and 1961 on interstate buses; there were 60 ‘freedom rides’, involving 450 CORE and SNCC members
- c. Direct action
  - King organised the first campaign of direct action and civil disobedience in Albany Georgia, in 1961, including a march and attempts to use civic amenities
- d. Freedom marches
  - e.g. Washington 1963 and Selma 1965; most of King’s campaigns involved a large march; these were more effective when they were attacked .
- e. Project Confrontation
  - King selected Birmingham, because the chief of police, ‘Bull’ O’Connor, was racist and KKK; King called his campaign ‘Project C’ (‘Project Confrontation’)

29. The freedom riders: events
- a. Anniston incident, 14 May 1961
  - First ride on an interstate buse; at Anniston the KKK tried to burn the riders alive; in Birmingham, Bull O’Connor let the KKK beat them (especially white riders)
- b. SNCC takes over
  - When CORE agreed to Robert Kennedy’s request that they abandon the ride, SNCC members took over
- c. 60 rides involving 450 riders
  - In all there were 60 ‘freedom rides’, involving 450 people
- d. Civil disobedience and freedom songs
  - During the rides, SNCC members used segregated toilets and diners; when arrested they sang freedom songs .
- e. Robert Kennedy ended segregation, Nov 1961
  - In November 1961, Attorney General Robert Kennedy forced the interstate buses to end segregation

30. Birmingham, 1963: events
- a. Project ‘C’ and ‘Bull’ O’Connor
  - King selected Birmingham, because the chief of police, ‘Bull’ O’Connor, was racist and KKK; King called his campaign ‘Project C’ (‘Project Confrontation’)
- b. Sit-ins and marches
  - The campaign began with sit-ins and marches
- c. Children’s Crusade, 3 May 1963
  - A huge march involving 1000 schoolchildren was attacked by the police, using dogs, batons and water hoses; the events were televised world-wide
- d. International outcry
  - There was an outcry and the city council was forced to desegregate its facilities .
- e. Kennedy’s civil rights law
  - In June 1963, President Kennedy announced his intention to introduce a civil rights law

31. Washington March, 1963: events
- a. Anniversary of Emancipation
  - The march marked the centenary of Lincoln’s Emancipation proclamation of 1863 which gave the black slaves freedom
- b. Philip Randolph wanted jobs and freedom
  - The march was proposed by Philip Randolph of American Federation of Labour and was styled a march for ‘jobs and freedom’
- c. Washington March, 28 Aug 1963
  - The march of 250,000 (including 75,000 white supporters) to the Lincoln Memorial; it united many black activist groups, including SCLC, SNCC and CORE
- d. I Have A Dream
  - King gave his inspirational ‘I have a dream’ speech .
- e. John Lewis’s speech was censored
  - There was controversy when a young SNCC activist’s speech had certain inflammatory statements cut, including a threat to ‘burn Jim Crow’

32. Freedom Summer, 1964: events
- a. Voter registration
  - Mississippi voter registration required 21 questions/only 7% of Mississippi black people were registered
- b. 1000 volunteers
  - Most volunteers were white and from the North; they were supported by volunteer doctors (when they were beaten) and lawyers (when they were arrested)
- c. The Mississippi Murders
  - 80 civil rights workers beaten, 1000 arrested and 37 churches bombed or burned; three volunteers were murdered – the murderer was only convicted in 2005
- d. Freedom Schools
  - Thousands of people attended summer schools to learn about black history and constitutional rights .
- e. Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
  - When the Mississippi Democratic Party refused to accept black members, the Freedom Summer organisers created the MFDP, which accepted members of all colours

33. Civil Rights successes, 1962–68
- a. The Civil Rights Act, 1964
  - The Civil Rights Act outlawed segregation in schools, public places and employment
- b. The Education Act, Apr 1965
  - The Education Act provided funding for public schools, which gave black students in state schools equal opportunity
- c. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Jul 1965
  - Set up to enforce the civil rights legislation of 1964, by legal prosecutions of necessary
- d. The Voting Rights Act, Aug 1965
  - The Voting Rights Act ended literacy tests and enforced one man, one vote .
- e. The Fair Housing Act, 1968
  - The Fair Housing Act banned discrimination in housing

34. Malcolm X: facts
- a. Ex-convict and ex-slave
  - Malcolm X was an ex-convict who became a Muslim; ‘X’ stood for ‘ex-slave’
- b. Malcolm X argued for 'Self defence'
  - Violence: Malcolm X argued that White violence left Black people with no alternative but to fight back – 'self-defence’ – ‘by whatever means necessary’
- c. Expelled from Nation of Islam
  - Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam group, but was expelled in 1963 because of his extreme views; he once said that White people were devils
- d. Social and economic justice
  - Malcolm X believed that Black people needed SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC justice; he also wanted a separate Black state .
- e. A role model for radicals
  - Malcolm X was the role-model for many of the more extreme young Black leaders after 1965

35. President Kennedy's role: facts
- a. Supported civil rights
  - Kennedy supported black civil rights, was a friend of King,
- b. Appointed black officials
  - Kennedy appointed the first black ambassador, the first black warship captain and the first black federal judge.
- c. James Meredith, 1962
  - In 1962, Kennedy sent federal troops to help James Meredith, a black student, go to the University of Mississippi.
- d. Civil Rights Act, 1964
  - Although assassinated before it became law, Kennedy formulated the 1964 Civil Rights Act .
- e. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1965
  - Although assassinated before it became law, Kennedy formulated the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1965), set up to enforce the civil rights legislation of 1964

36. President Johnson's role: facts
- a. Civil Rights Bill, 1964
  - Johnson put Kennedy’s civil rights bill though the Senate
- b. Education Act, 1965
  - Johnson formulated an Education Act (1965) to fund black schools and colleges
- c. Fair Housing Act, 1968
  - Johnson formulated the Civil Rights (Fair Housing) Act of 1968, which ended discrimination in housing
- d. Affirmative Action
  - Johnson realised the importance of ‘affirmative action’ (positive discrimination to help black people) .
- e. The 'Great Society' failed
  - Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ plan to end social deprivation failed because of the cost of the Vietnam War

37. President Nixon's role: facts
- a. Committee on Education
  - Nixon set up the Committee on Education, under his vice-president, Spiro Agnew, to implement the school desegregation laws; this was done by 1974
- b. Affirmative Action
  - Nixon appointed James Farmer as Assistant Secretary to introduce affirmative action recruitment into the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
- c. Revenue sharing
  - Nixon devised ‘revenue sharing’, where he matched state social spending with federal grants
- d. Family Assistance Plan
  - Nixon devised the Family Assistance Plan (direct payments) instead of the humiliating food stamps .
- e. Watergate ruined his projects
  - Neither revenue sharing nor Family Assistance fully implemented because Nixon had to resign in 1974 in the Watergate scandal

38. Black Power: causes
- a. Malcolm X
  - Malcolm X wanted social and economic justice; he argued white violence left black people with no alternative but ‘self-defence’ – ‘by whatever means necessary’.
- b. Freedom Houses
  - After 1964, CORE workers rented houses in northern ghetto areas and got involved in social action to improve education, health and housing
- c. Watts Riots, 1965
  - The Watts Riots in Los Angeles made everyone realise that getting civil rights did not make black Americans any more prosperous
- d. Affirmative action
  - After 1965, James Farmer of CORE argued equal rights was not enough – poor blacks needed ‘affirmative action’ (positive discrimination) to get out of poverty .
- e. Stokely Carmichael, 1966
  - The ‘Black Power’ movement began in 1966 when Stokely Carmichael shouted out ‘now is Black Power’ on the ‘Meredith March’ with Martin Luther King

39. Black Power: facts
- a. Floyd McKissick became CORE leader, 1966
  - Floyd McKissick became leader of CORE; he expelled all white members
- b. Huey Newton formed the Black Panthers, 1966
  - Huey Newton formed the Black Panthers; they were a Communist group who attacked police and contacted international terrorist groups
- c. The SNCC chose Stokely Carmichael, 1966
  - The SNCC chose Stokely Carmichael as their leader; on the Meredith March in 1966 SNCC members sang: ‘O what fun it is to blast, a trooper man away’
- d. H Rap Brown urged looting, 1967
  - H. Rap Brown became SNCC president; he urged black people to loot local stores – this resulted in rioting in Maryland .
- e. Black Power protest at the Olympics, 1968
  - At the Mexico Olympics, US athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos celebrated their medals by giving the Black Power salute

40. The status of women in 1961: facts
- a. Eleanor Roosevelt was a role-model
  - Eleanor Roosevelt chaired the UN Commission on Human Rights (1948); in her ‘My Day’ column she tried to persuade women to 'become more conscious of themselves'
- b. President’s Commission on the Status of Women, 1961
  - Set up by Kennedy: it recommended equal opportunities, maternity leave and child care, but achieved no change
- c. Women as 'The homemaker'
  - Gadgets and consumer durables made a housewife’s life easier, but she was still expected to be ‘the homemaker’ – raising children, and looking after her husband
- d. Bound by the 'traditional family' stereotype
  - The ‘traditional family’ stereotype was reinforced in magazines and on television .
- e. ‘Pink collar' jobs
  - Most women's employment was in certain 'pink collar' jobs – e.g. secretaries, nurses, teachers, librarians

41. The women's movements: facts
- a. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique, 1963
  - In 1963, Betty Friedan wrote the feminist book The Feminine Mystique
- b. NOW, 1966
  - In 1966, Betty Friedan formed NOW (National Organization for Women) to campaign for gender equality in the workplace
- c. SCUM, 1967
  - In 1967, Valerie Solanas wrote her SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) manifesto, calling on women to overthrow men and take over society
- d. Women's Lib, 1968
  - After 1968, Women’s Lib groups were formed all over America. Their actions included protesting at the Miss America pageant and burning their bras .
- e. The Redstockings, 1969
  - In 1969, the Redstockings group was formed; they held disruptive protests called ‘zap actions’

42. Achievements of the women's movement: facts
- a. Civil Rights Act, 1964
  - In 1964, the Civil Rights Act banned discrimination on account of gender
- b. Bella Azbug was elected to Congress, 1970
  - In 1970, the Feminist Bella Abzug was elected to Congress
- c. Title X, 1970
  - In 1970, the 'Title X' Family Planning Program gave access to contraceptives as a civil right
- d. The Educational Amendment Act, 1972
  - In 1972, the Educational Amendment Act assured women of equality in education .
- e. The right to an abortion, 1973
  - In 1973, the Supreme Court confirmed a woman’s right to have an abortion

43. Women in the workplace: facts
- a. Equal Pay Act, 1963
  - In 1963, the Equal Pay Act made wage discrimination based on gender illegal
- b. Equal Employment Opportunities Commission, 1965
  - In 1965, the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission was set up to investigate cases of discrimination based on race, religion, gender, age or disability
- c. Johnson's Executive Order 11375, 1967
  - In 1967, President Johnson’s Executive Order 11375 opened the way for women to apply for many jobs previously restricted to men
- d. Betty Friedan's Strike for Equality, 1970
  - In 1970, Betty Friedan organised a women’s Strike for Equality .
- e. The 'Quiet Revolution'
  - The 'Quiet Revolution'; in the 1970s, women started to go to university, took a career in 'male' professions, married and had children later

44. The ‘New Frontier’, 1960-63: facts
- a. Economic Growth
  - 1961 Economic Stimulus programme – esp. construction and the Space Race/ reduced interest rates and cut tax/ trade negotiations with the EEC
- b. Civil Rights and Women's Rights
  - Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (1961)/ banned segregation on interstate transport/ Report to the American People on Civil Rights (1963)/ Equal Pay Act (1963)
- c. Alleviate Poverty/ Housing
  - A number of measures to help the poor and aged, and to improve urban housing
- d. Public Health/ Environment
  - Social Security Amendments (1961) improved medical services for disabled children and prenatal care for low-income families/ Clean Air Act (1963) and new wildlife/ outdoor areas … but a Bill for Medicare failed .
- e. Education
  - Funding for Special Education and vocational training/ Health Professionals Educational Assistance Act (1963)/ Peace Corps (1961)

45. The ‘New Frontier’, 1960-63: Poverty
- a. Minimum Wage
  - The Fair Labor Standards Act (1961) increased the minimum wage from $1 an hour to $1.15
- b. Social Security
  - The 1961 economic stimulus package included a 20% increase in Social Security payments/ Social Security Amendments (1961) increased aid to widows and widowers and extended benefits to an additional five million Americans
- c. Food
  - A pilot Food Stamp programme (1961)/ free school meals extended to ¾ million more children
- d. Housing & Slum clearance
  - Area Redevelopment Act (1961)/ Housing Act (1961) .
- e. Senior Citizens
  - Social Security Amendments (1961) allowed retirement at 62/ Senior Citizens Housing Act (1962) funded loans for apartment projects for people 62+

46. The ‘Great Society’, 1964-69: facts
- a. Economic Growth
  - Walter Heller and the ‘New Economics’/ the Revenue Act (1964) cut taxes by $11 billion (though the Vietnam War forced him to draw back on this)/ Space Race Spin-offs such as satellites, computer technology and ‘clean rooms’ in manufacturing
- b. Civil Rights and Women's Rights
  - Civil Rights Act (1964)/ Voting Rights Act (1965)/ Fair Housing Act (1968)// Executive Order 11375 (1967) banned discriminatory hiring on the basis of sex. But Johnson did little for women and not enough for Black Equality (hence the 1964-68 riots)
- c. Alleviate Poverty/ Housing
  - A number of measures to help the poor and aged, and to improve urban housing
- d. Public Health/ Environment
  - Social Security Amendments (1965) – Medicare and Medicaid/ Social Security Amendments (1967) – funding for family planning/ Wilderness Act (1964) – the National Wilderness Preservation System/ Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act (1965)/consumer protection measures .
- e. Education
  - Elementary and Secondary Education Act and the Higher Education Act (1965)/ Bilingual Education Act (1968) to help children who spoke little English/ Head Start for early learners/ Adult Education

47. The ‘Great Society’, 1964-69: Poverty
- a. Minimum Wage
  - Increased to $1.40 an hour
- b. Economic Opportunity Act (1964)
  - A number of initiatives to combat poverty, including: creating the Office of Economic Opportunity/ Job Corps/ Work Study grants to colleges for students from low-income families/ loans to small businesses/ Health Centres in poor neighbourhoods/ VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America )/ Head Start (an early education initiative)/ Foster Grandparents/ Legal Services for the Poor
- c. Social Security
  - There was a push to get eligible people onto assistance schemes (e.g. Assistance for Needy Children/ Assistance for Migrants)
- d. Food
  - The Food Stamp Act (1964) expanded the food assistance programme, including (from 1965) home-delivered meals to the aged .
- e. Housing & Slum clearance
  - Housing and Urban Development Act (1965) and the Model Cities programme