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 World
War One [Revision
Cascade]
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This Cascade will give you points and ideas for writing an answer about any of the topics in the list. And, when it comes to revision, you can use it to test your memory of the points and ideas you might want to raise in the exam.
Click on the yellow arrows to reveal the paragraph points, and again to
reveal ideas for developing the point.
I have given you five points for every topic but, in practical terms for
the exam, you will probably get away with remembering three or four. |
- 1. Schlieffen Plan:
Failure
- a.
Schlieffen Plan (1906)
-
The German Schlieffen Plan was too ambitious – 90% of the German army was to swing down through Belgium to take out France in 42 days
- b.
Belgium (Aug 1914)
-
August 1914: the Germans took longer to conquer Belgium than they expected
- c.
Mons (23 Aug 1914)
-
23 August 1914: the British Expeditionary Force held them up at Mons
- d.
Moltke's change of plan (28 Aug 1914)
-
German Gen Moltke had to send 100,000 troops to fight the Russians, who mobilised faster than expected; he lost confidence and diverted his forces south
.
- e.
Marne (6–10 Sep 1914)
-
The French advanced into the gap this created – the exhausted Germans were stopped at the Battle of the Marne
- 2.
Schlieffen Plan: Signficance
- a.
It drew Germany into the Wat
-
It made the Germany over-confident opinion that they could win a war against a numerically superior enemy.
- b.
It lost Germany the War
-
It brought France and Britain into the war, and its failure led to the eventual defeat and exhaustion of Germany.
- c.
It discredited Germany
-
It showed them as the aggressors, led and ruled by over-confident militarists, the cause of the War, the attackers of a neutral country, and the perpetrators of Schrecklichkeit in Belgium.
- d.
Stalemate and the war of attrition
-
After its failure, the war of movement ended, and both sides dug in for what was to turn out to be a four-year war of attrition
.
- e.
The enduring myth
-
The myth of an annihilating encircling plan has influenced Nazi and NATO strategists.
- 3.
Schlieffen Plan: Historiography
- a.
The Schlieffen School
-
Mainly German army staff, notably General Hermann von Kuhl (in 1920) – they blamed Moltke for the failure of the Plan.
- b.
Gerhard Ritter (1956)
-
Saw it as a blind surrender of German politicians to militarism, “an over-daring, gamble whose success depended on many lucky accidents."
- c.
Dennis Showalter (1991)
-
“A military myth requiring everything to go impossibly right to have a real chance of succeeding”.
- d.
Terence Zuber (2002)
-
Declared that Schlieffen’s 1905 Memorandum was not a plan of attack, but a pitch for money. The Schlieffen School had “invented the Schlieffen plan in order to protect their reputation”.
.
- e.
Michael Neiberg (2022)
-
Not a ‘myth’ but very over-ambitious.
- 4. The race
for the sea: facts
- a.
Battle of the Aisne (13 Sep)
-
After the Marne (Sep 1914) the Germans retreated, then they turned, dug trenches and held their ground. They could not be driven out – trench warfare had begun
- b.
The 'race for the sea'
-
First, the two sides tried to outflank each other, digging trenches as they went; the ‘race’ ended when the two sides had dug a trench-line which reached the sea
- c.
First Battle of Ypres (19 Oct–22 Nov 1914)
-
October 1914: the First Battle of Ypres (50,000 British casualties, 100,000 German)
- d.
Trenches from the Channel to Switzerland
-
By November 1914, both sides faced each other across ‘No Man’s Land’ between two lines of trenches stretching from the Channel to Switzerland
.
- e.
Stalemate
-
For the next four years, the war on the western front was more-or-less deadlocked in stalemate
- 5. The war
of stalemate: battles
- a.
Loos (1915)
-
At first, the British commander Haig attempted to break through the enemy trenches; the British suffered 50,000 casualties but made no progress
- b.
Verdun (Feb–Nov 1916)
-
The Germans developed the idea of 'position warfare' (holding your position and trying to wear down the enemy); 280,000 Germans and 315,000 French died
- c.
The Somme (Jul–Nov 1916)
-
Casualties: 415,000 British, 195,000 French, 600,000 German
- d.
Passchendaele (Jul–Nov 1917)
-
Casualties: 325,000 Allied, 260,000 German
.
- e.
Operation Michael (21 Mar 1918)
-
The trench war of attrition continued until the Germans developed their 'infiltration' tactics in 1918
- 6. Causes of
the Stalemate
after 1914
- a.
Strategies for open warfare failed
-
The French Plan 17 and the German Schlieffen Plan – and the subsequent attempts to outflank the enemy in the ‘Race to the Sea’ – failed with unsustainable losses
- b.
Weapons’ technologies had made the open battlefield deadly
-
Esp. artillery and the machine gun
- c.
Armies struggled to co-ordinate infantry and artillery
-
Artillery technology at the start of the war was not accurate enough to support a moving attack with a rolling barrage, and aerial reconnaissance to identify targets was in its infancy.
- d.
Difficulties of command and control of the huge armies
-
The armies were huge - millions of men - and telephone technology wasn’t equal to the task, and wireless messages en clair could be intercepted
.
- e.
Supply problems
-
Infantry had to advance on foot, artillery was pulled by horses, but defenders could rush men and supplies to the Front by train.
- 7. The
trench system: facts
- a.
Layout
-
Front and support trenches; communication trenches (saps); brigade HQ and artillery 1-2 miles behind; then reserves and cavalry; then supplies and Division HQ
- b.
Bays
-
Trenches were built in a zigzag to stop the enemy capturing a section and firing a machine gun down the trench
- c.
Construction
-
Parapet; firestep; duckboards; sandbags
- d.
No Man's Land
- e.
Protection
-
Officers' dug-out; funk holes
- 8. Trench warfare: facts
- a.
Routine
-
3 days on the front line (lightly garrisoned); a week in the reserve trench; 2 weeks’ R&R
- b.
Reconnaissance raids
-
‘Booty’ (letters; plans); prisoners to interrogate
- c.
Artillery bombardment
- d.
Over the top
-
Whistle, over the top (OTT), run, hand grenades, enfilading fire (crossfire)
.
- e.
‘'Bite and hold’
-
‘Bite and hold’ – but the Germans always immediately counterattacked
- 9. Positives
of trench life: facts
- a.
Adventure
-
Travel, adventure and comradeship
- b.
Bravery
-
Patriotism, bravery and respect for their officers (who went over the top with them); R&R and leave (a ‘Blighty one’ got you sent back home)
- c.
Fun
-
French girls (‘Inky-pinky parlez-vous’); letters from home; hampers and luxuries; humour (the Wipers Times); concerts; songs; sport
- d.
Food
-
Rations were generally good; working-class soldiers put on weight
.
- e.
Stoicism
-
Many soldiers took even the worst philosophically: ‘not a sad face, not a word of complaint’
- 10. Horrors
of trench warfare: facts
- a.
Vermin and disease
-
Lice (chats); rats; mud; rain and cold; trench foot; gangrene
- b.
Death and fear
-
Dead and wounded; rotting bodies, smell; shell-shock; gas; fear
- c.
Absconding and executions
-
346 executions for cowardice or absconding; firing squad
- d.
‘'Fatigues' and fatigue
-
‘Fatigues’ (latrines, pumps, digging trenches, burying dead); patrolling (dangerous); marching
.
- e.
Owen and Sassoon
-
War poets such as Owen and Sassoon stressed the futility and horror of the war
- 11.
Gallipoli: causes
- a.
To break the stalemate on the Western Front
-
A breakthrough would open a back door to attack Germany, and draw German resources away from the Western Front.
- b.
Winston Churchill
-
Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, pressed very hard for a ‘second front’
- c.
Russia was losing badly to the Germans on the Eastern Front
-
Capturing the Straits from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea would allow the Allies to supply Russia.
- d.
Turkey was ‘the weak man of Europe’
-
It had been driven out of the Balkans in 1912 and the British had easily defeated it in [what we now call Iraq] in 1914. The British expected an easy win which would take out Germany’s ally.
.
- e.
To threaten Austria Hungary
-
Serbia had defeated the Austro-Hungarian army in August 1914, and a successful attack through the Balkans might subsequently take Austria-Hungary out of the war.
- 12.
Gallipoli: events
- a.
Naval attempt to sail into the Straits, March 1915
-
Failed 2 French and 2 British ships sunk, and HMS Inflexible severely damaged.
- b.
MEF, 25 April 1915
-
The ANZACs landed at Gaba Tepe, the British & French on Cape Helles. They suffered heavy casualties just landing and barely established a foothold.
- c.
Sulva Bay, July 1915
-
Six new divisions were sent to Gallipoli, but third landing at Sulva Bay failed to make any progress.
- d.
Evacuation, December 1915
-
The defeat of Serbia in November wrecked any hope of a campaign against Austria-Hungary. Hamilton was replaced by Sir Charles Monroe, who advised evacuation
.
- e.
Casualties
-
115,000 Casualties As costly and as stalemated as the Western Front
- 13.
Gallipoli: Why did it fail?
- a.
The Straits were heavily mined and defended
-
Allied minesweepers were actually trawlers manned by civilians
- b.
Turkish defence
-
The British underestimated the Turks, who were led by Mustafa Kemel, had German advisers, and copied German tactics from the Western Front.
- c.
Allied failings
-
‘Second fiddle’ to the Western Front; inexperienced troops and commanders; financing and supply problems; poor on-the-ground reconnaissance/intelligence
- d.
Dreadful conditions
-
Heat and lack of water, and lack of space to bury waste or the dead caused dysentery, and the MEF struggled to hold their position, never mind advance.
.
- e.
Bulgaria
-
In October Bulgaria joined the war, giving Germany a direct rail link to Constantinople, and resulting in defeat of Serbia.
- 14.
Gallipoli: Consequences
- a.
Second front failed
-
It was the end of talk of a second front, and proved the need for a deadly war of attrition.
- b.
Defeat of Serbia
-
By encouraging Bulgaria to join Germany and Turkey, it led to the defeat of Serbia, and failed to support Russia.
- c.
Defeat for the British Empire
-
Churchill was dismissed and the Liberal government collapsed, to be replaced by a much more war-focussed coalition government.
- d.
ANZACs
-
It dinted Australian and New Zealand confidence in Britain, and was part of the beginning of the end of the British Empire.
.
- e.
Turkish nationalism
-
In Turkey, the campaign created national pride and cemented Kemel’s reputation … which would lead eventually to the establishment of the Turkish Republic with Kemel as its first leader.
- 15. Verdun:
Why?
- a.
Attrition
-
If we believe Falkenhayn’s 1920 claims, he invented the idea of attrition warfare
- b.
The centre of Frace’s defence system
-
A complex of French forts which they hoped that they might capture it with few losses, but then destroy the French forces which tried to retake it.
- c.
A ‘salient’
-
So the German artillery could fire on it from three sides, but all the counter-attacking French forces would be concentrated in the one corridor
- d.
Accessible
-
Close to German railway lines, and the German 5th Army had captured the main French railway line into the area – so it would be difficult for the French to supply their armies
.
- e.
Weakened
-
Joffre had been withdrawing men and equipment and sending them into the trench line; Fort Douaumont was defended by just 56 men.
- 16. Verdun:
facts
- a.
21-24 February 1916
-
Operation Gericht took the French by surprise and made gains on the east bank of the River Meuse … but NOT the heights overlooking Verdun
- b.
25 February
-
Joffre was replaced by Pétain, but on 25 February the Germans captured Douaumont.
- c.
7 June
-
Further German attacks captured more of the area, including Fort Vaux (7 June). Pétain advised withdrawing but was ordered to hold at all costs.
- d.
June-July
-
The Russian General Brusilov attacked Austria-Hungary/ the British attacked on the Somme; the Germans were forced to transfer men and artillery away from Verdun. German attacks ceased.
.
- e.
21 October
-
French General Charles Mangin recaptured Douaumont on 24 October and Vaux on 2 November.
- 17. Verdun:
Why did the Germans fail?
- a.
Eastern Heights
-
The Germans failed to capture the eastern heights, so could not shell the counter-attacking French from above.
- b.
Abandoned the Plan
-
Instead of letting the French counter-attack, the German 5th Army kept attacking.
- c.
Pétain’s brilliant defence
-
… including motorised transport, the Noria system of resting the troops, and the development of the ‘creeping barrage’.
- d.
Prestige
-
The French sent thousands to their death on the Voie Sacrée
.
- e.
The historian Alistair Horne (1962) blamed Falkenhayn
-
Horne blamed Falkenhayn’s "indecisiveness [and] almost pathological secretiveness"
- 18. Verdun:
Results
- a.
The mythologised battle
-
But did not destroy either army, though Hindenburg declared it had exhausted the German soldiers.
- b.
The start of the war of attrition?
-
No: commanders on both sides kept hoping for a breakthrough
- c.
The start of modern warfare
-
Motorised transport, control of the skies, flame-throwers, the creeping barrage – Materialschlacht (industrialised warfare)
- d.
Batte of the Somme
-
One of the reasons for the Battle of the Somme was to relieve the pressure on the French at Verdun
.
- e.
Verdun School
-
It convinced French generals (esp. Nivelle) of the value of attack – with disastrous results at the battle of the Aisne.
- 19. Verdun:
historiography
- a.
Resonance
-
For the French it was the symbol of resistance; it convinced the Nazis of the need for a warrior-caste
- b.
The Christmas Memorandum
-
It has been proved that Falkenhayn invented the Christmas memorandum, but historians disagree whether he invented the idea of attrition.
- c.
Alistair Horne’s Price of Glory (1962)
-
Put the suffering of the soldiers at the centre of the narrative
- d.
Paul Jankowski (2014)
-
The battle ceased to be about winning a war, and came to be about prestige
.
- e.
Michael Bourlet (2023)
-
“The war of movement in a pocket handkerchief”/ only about attrition when attacks failed/ a ‘transitional’ battle in between 1914-15 and later hyperbattles.
- 20. Battle
of the Somme: facts
- a.
Fought to help the French
-
It was fought to relieve the pressure on the French (who were fighting the Battle of Verdun)
- b.
Artillery bombardment
-
The 8-day artillery bombardment (1.7 million shells; could be heard in England) failed
- c.
OTT (1 July 1916)
-
1 July 1916: 7.30am: OTT – each man carried 80lb of kit (ammunition, wire, spade etc.)
- d.
Britain's bloodiest day
-
19,240 dead and 38,230 wounded (the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army)
.
- e.
Heavy casualty lists
-
Haig kept on until November: casualties: British 415,000; French 195,000; Germans 600,000; he said the British had to be 'prepared to see heavy casualty lists'
- 21. Battle
of the Somme: results
- a.
Britain's bloodiest day
-
19,240 dead and 38,230 wounded (the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army)
- b.
Heavy casualty lists
-
Haig kept on until November: casualties: British 415,000; French 195,000; Germans 600,000; he said the British had to be 'prepared to see heavy casualty lists'
- c.
British morale fell
-
Morale fell – nb the war poets Owen and Sassoon, hatred to 'the generals – and also at home
- d.
Haig's reputation was damaged
-
Haig is often called ‘the Butcher of the Somme’; historian John Laffin wrote: ‘The generals had no real strategy at all. It was just slaughter’
.
- e.
The German Army was damaged
-
German General Ludendorff admitted ‘the German army had been fought to a standstill’; a German psychologist called it ‘the muddy grave of the German army’.
- 22. Haig:
criticisms
- a.
He ordered the men to walk
-
He was so convinced the bombardment had killed all Germans he ordered the men to walk.
- b.
He ignored reports the bombardment had failed
-
He failed to listen to observers who warned him the bombardment had not worked.
- c.
The mines warned the Germans
-
The mines, which were exploded at 7.28am, simply warned the Germans an attack was coming.
- d.
His tactics were out of date
-
His tactics were out of date - he kept cavalry in reserve to charge when the breakthrough he expected happened
.
- e.
He kept on until November
-
He kept on until November, even though he could see his men were being slaughtered, for the gain of almost no territory
- 23. Haig:
defence
- a.
No alternative
-
There was no viable alternative strategy or technology available to him.
- b.
Poor battlefield communications
-
Communications were not as good as today, so Haig had no way of knowing how the battle was going — at first, he was told it had been a great success.
- c.
New weapons and tactics
-
Haig did introduce new ideas (tanks, machine guns, aeroplanes, infiltration, creeping barrage).
- d.
Honoured at his funeral
-
After the war, thousands of soldiers honoured him at his funeral.
.
- e.
Necessary casualties
-
Haig believed: ‘The nation must be prepared to see heavy casualty lists’ if it wanted to win.
- 24. Haig:
historiography
- a.
Churchill and Lloyd George (1916–17)
-
Criticised Haig for the high casualties and tried to prevent Passchendaele; only the King's support prevented Haig being dismissed
- b.
The Official History (1920s)
-
After 1918, Haig was greatly praised – not least because he sent a copy of his notes on the war to everybody he knew was writing about it
- c.
Liddell Hart (1930s)
-
After Owen and Sassoon's poetry changed people's view about the war, Liddell Hart published a fierce account, accusing Haig of incompetence
- d.
The Donkeys (1961)
-
Alan Clark said the soldiers were 'lions led by donkeys'; many historians still call Haig a 'Butcher and a Bungler' (Laffin)
.
- e.
John Terraine (1963)
-
Terraine argued that Haig did as well as the technology of the time allowed; many historians today are ‘unapologetically pro-Haig’
- 25. New
weapons: facts
- a.
Machine guns
-
A Vickers machine gun could fire 600 bullets a minute; however, until 1918, machine guns were static and could not be used in a moving attack
- b.
Tanks
-
49 tanks were first used by Haig at the Battle of the Somme (1916); however they had a top speed 4 miles an hour, and kept getting stuck and breaking down
- c.
Planes
-
Planes at first for reconnaissance; later for dogfights and bombing raids; by 1918, the RFC had 23,000 planes, including the Sopwith Camel, and ‘aces’ such as Albert Ball were famous
- d.
Gas
-
Gas (chlorine – phosgene – mustard gas) was first used at the Battle of Ypres, 1915; unreliable (could blow back) and gas masks were quickly developed
.
- e.
Creeping barrage
-
Creeping barrage – lifted as the troops advanced
- 26. The War in 1917
- a.
Second Battle of Arras (9 April to 16 May)
-
A diversionary attack to help the Nivelle Offensive. The use of creeping barrage, ‘leap frog’, ‘bite and hold’, extensive mining, and aerial reconnaissance led to initial success before it bogged down.
- b.
Nivelle’s Aisne Offensive (16 April-May)
-
A disaster, which led to half the French infantry divisions refusing to attack.
- c.
Battle of Messines (7-4 June)
-
To protect the French. Successful due to a detailed map, better spotting, mining, tanks and overhead barrage.
- d.
Battle of Passchendaele (July to November)
-
To protect the French. A series of battles – Pilckem Ridge, Langemarck, Menin Road, Polygon Wood. Conceived as a breakthrough attack, it descended into a deadly stalemate, which was actually key in the attrition of the German army.
.
- e.
Battle of Cambrai (20 November to 3 December)
-
Cambrai – first to use large numbers of tanks, and ‘combined arms’ attack. First day hugely successful, but tanks failed and the overstretched attack was defeated with heavy casualties.
- 27. War at
Sea: U-boats
- a.
1914: Attacks in the Royal Navy.
-
At first, they attacked the Royal Navy; by the end of 1914, German U-boats had sunk British 9 warships.
- b.
1915: Attacks on merchant shipping
-
In February 1915, as a retaliation to the British naval blockade, the German Admiralty announced a war zone around Britain and unrestricted submarine warfare. By August 1915 they were sinking two ships a day.
- c.
American outrage
-
The American public was outraged by sinkings of the Harpalyce, the Lusitania, and the liner SS Arabic.
- d.
1916: the Sussex Pledge
-
After the sinking of the Sussex, President Wilson forced Germany to agree the 'Sussex Pledge' - not to attack passenger ships, and to allow crews of merchant ships to abandon ship before sinking it.
.
- e.
1917: 'unrestricted submarine warfare
-
On 31 January 1917, Germany once again began 'unrestricted submarine warfare', one of the reasons America entered the war.
- 28. Anti-U-boat measures
- a.
Q-ships
-
A warship disguised as a merchant ship, but by the end of 1916, the British had only sunk 15 U-boats.
- b.
Depth charges
-
The British introduced the first effective depth charge, the Type D, in January 1916
- c.
Mines and submarine nets
- d.
Convoys
-
From April 1917, in groups of 20 or more ships, protected by battleships with depth charges.
.
- e.
American help
-
With help from the US Navy, by 1918, the U-boats were only sinking 1 in 25 merchant ships sailing to Britain.
- 29. Battle of Jutland:
facts
- a.
31 May 1916
-
The German navy came out to try to break the British blockade. The British Grand Fleet was commanded by Admiral Jellicoe and the Germany Hugh Seas Fleet by Admiral Scheer.
- b.
Better gunners
-
German shells penetrated British armour and blew up their ammunition stores; three British ships just blew up. Beatty: “There seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today.”
- c.
British losses
-
The British lost 14 ships – inc. 3 battleships – and 6,000 men killed. The Germans lost 11 smaller ships and 2,550 men.
- d.
Loss of nerve
-
Both commanders knew that to lose the battle was to lose the war. Scheer lost his nerve and broke off. Jellicoe let him get away. Both sides claimed victory.
.
- e.
British blockade
-
The German fleet never left port again, and mutinied when ordered to do so in 1918. The British Blockade continued, and reduced Germany to starvation.
- 30.
America's entry into the war: causes
- a.
To support the Allies
-
The USA had supported the Allies with loans, weapons and food.
- b.
Preparedness Movement
-
After 1915, the 'Preparedness Movement' argued that, in a world at war, American needed to prepare for war; the government increased the army and the navy
- c.
Unrestricted submarine warfare
-
U-boat attacks (especially the loss of 128 Americans on the Lusitania, 1915) had angered the USA, and in 1917 Germany resumed unrestricted submarine attacks.
- d.
Zimmerman telegram
-
1917: the Germans sent a telegram (the ‘Zimmerman telegram’) offering to give Texas to Mexico if Mexico would attack the USA. This angered the Americans.
.
- e.
A 'world safe for democracy'
-
President Wilson declared war on 2 Apr 1917 stating that 'we serve no selfish ends' but that American wanted 'a world safe for democracy'
- 31.
America's entry into the war: results
- a.
Impossible to defeat
-
America was the richest country in the world, beyond the reach of German Zeppelins.
- b.
1.8 million new Allied soldiers
-
After a year to train, 1.8 million US soldiers were in France by October 1918.
- c.
Fresh and enthusiastic soldiers
-
American soldiers were fresh and enthusiastic – the German soldiers were exhausted and war-weary, and increasingly young (the older soldiers had been killed)
- d.
Ludendorff Offensive
-
The entry of the US forced the Germans to try the last-ditch Ludendorff Offensive
.
- e.
The defeat of Germany in 1918
-
US soldiers arrived in time to help stop the Ludendorff Offensive, and they took part in the subsequent Allied offensive which forced the Germans to sign the Armistice.
- 32. The
Ludendorff Offensive: causes
- a.
Russia had left the war
-
Russia had left the war, so the Germans could use 1 million soldiers from the Eastern Front.
- b.
America had entered the war
-
The Americans had entered the war, so millions of American soldiers would soon be arriving; the Germans had to try to finish the war before that happened.
- c.
Starvation in Germany
-
There was starvation in Germany because of the British blockade.
- d.
Germany troops were exhausted
-
German troops were exhausted – older men were dead and their replacements were teenagers.
.
- e.
Infiltration tactics
-
The Germans used 'infiltration tactics', not attacking fortified points, but advancing quickly around them – this meant that they could break the stalemate of trench warfare
- 33. The events of 1918
- a.
The Ludendorff Offensive (1918)
-
In 1917, Russia left the war, but American joined, so the Germans wanted to use 1 million soldiers from the Eastern Front before the US soldiers arrived
- b.
‘'Operation Michael’ (21 Mar 1918)
-
The Germans used 'infiltration tactics', not attacking fortified points, but advancing quickly around them; by June they were only 50 miles from Paris
- c.
‘'Order of the Day’ (11 April 1918)
-
The Allies were almost defeated – Haig issued the ‘Order of the Day’ (11 April 1918): ‘Every position must be held to the last man’
- d.
The German army’s ‘Black Day’ (8 August 1918)
-
Haig counterattacked; in Aug-Nov he secured spectacular victories (190,000 prisoners and 3,000 guns captured) and put the Germans in full retreat
.
- e.
The Armistice (11 November 1918)
-
There was starvation in Germany because of the British blockade, the German navy mutinied, and Germany signed the Armistice at 11am on 11 November 1918
- 34. Germany in 1918
- a.
Starvation, 1917–18
-
The British blockade and a harvest failure had reduced Germany to starvation (eating berries)
- b.
Strikes, Jan 1918
-
There was rioting in many cities, and half a million workers went on strike in Berlin (Jan)
- c.
Kiel Mutiny, Oct 1918
-
The Kiel Mutiny (Oct): German sailors refused to fight, and set up Communist-style ‘soviets’ (councils)
- d.
The government collapsed, 9 Nov 1918
-
The Kaiser abdicated (Nov) and fled to Holland
.
- e.
A humiliating Armistice, 11 Nov 1918
-
The German government sought and signed a humiliating and harsh Armistice (Nov) which was a humiliating defeat
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