Vietnam War Cascade

The Vietnam War [Revision Cascade]
This Cascade will give you points and ideas for writing an answer about any of the topics in the list. And, when it comes to revision, you can use it to test your memory of the points and ideas you might want to raise in the exam. Click on the yellow arrows to reveal the paragraph points, and again to reveal ideas for developing the point. I have given you five points for every topic but, in practical terms for the exam, you will probably get away with remembering three or four.
1. The Vietnam War: why the US became involved a. French driven out of Vietnam, 1954 After 1945, the French failed to re-conquer Indo- China; the Geneva Agreement (1954) divided Vietnam into a Communist north and a ‘democratic’ south b. Communist National Liberation Front, 1960 After 1960, the Communist National Liberation Front (the ‘Vietcong’ – VC) began a guerrilla war to try to conquer South Vietnam c. Hatred of Communism America was committed to ‘contain’ Communism (e.g. the McCarthy ‘witch-hunt’ of the 1950s); also the US ‘military–industrial complex’) wanted war d. Domino theory The Diem government of South Vietnam was unpopular and weak, but the US believed that if one country fell to communism in the region, others would follow . e. Escalation Once they got involved, the USA found that they were being attacked by the VC and had to respond: 2. How the US got involved: events a. Thich Quang Duc, Oct 1963 In October 1963, a Buddhist monk named Thich Quang Duc burned himself to death in protest at the Diem government’s persecution of Buddhism b. Diem was assassinated, Nov 1963 In November 1963, the CIA arranged a military coup, and Diem was assassinated c. USS Maddox incident, 2 Aug 1964 The USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin claimed it had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. d. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 7 Aug 1964 US Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, giving President Johnson the power to order military action . e. Operation Rolling Thunder, Feb 1965 After the VC attacked US air bases, Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder and the USA sent increasing numbers of troops (500,000 by 1969) 3. The theory of guerrilla warfare a. To defeat a more powerful enemy Guerrilla warfare is used by small, poorly-equipped groups fighting a more powerful enemy b. On Guerrilla Warfare, 1937 Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong explained: 1, get the support of the people; 2, harass and weaken the enemy; 3. drive them out in a conventional war c. The only rule is no rules The only rule to guerrilla warfare, said Mao Zedong, is that there are no rules d. Ho Chi Min fought Japan and France Ho Chi Minh used guerrilla tactics against the Japanese during the Second World War, and then to drive out the French . e. Vo Nguyen Giap defeated the USA The Vietnamese military leader Vo Nguyen Giap and the North Vietnamese army (NVA) used guerrilla tactics against the Americans, 1964–1975 4. Guerrilla tactics, 1964–1968: facts a. Surprise attacks and sabotage The VC fought in ordinary peasant pyjamas so that they could not be distinguished from the ordinary population b. Cu Chi tunnels After attacking, they used a vast network of tunnels to escape (e.g. the 75-mile Cu Chi network near Saigon) c. Booby traps, tripwires and landmines Booby traps, tripwires and landmines (e.g. ‘Bouncing Betty’) d. Hanging onto the belt The tactic of ‘hanging onto the belt’ – staying close to the Americans so they could not use air or artillery . e. Ho Chi Minh Trail The Vietcong were supplied by China and Russia (SAM-guided missiles and MiG planes) via the Ho Chi Minh Trail supply line through Laos/Cambodia 5. The US response: events a. Operation Rolling Thunder, 1965–1968 150,000 B52 bomber raids, dropping 864,000 tonnes of bombs on places where they thought there were Vietcong units b. Ia Drang, 1965 US Commander General William Westmoreland lured the NVA to attack American troops at Ia Drang, then destroyed them with a massive air strike c. Operation Crimp, 1966 In 1966, Operation Crimp tried to destroy the Cu Chi tunnels by bombing, followed by a search-and-destroy raid involving 8000 troops. It failed d. My Lai Massacre, 1968 Charlie Company of the 23rd Infantry Division, led by Second Lieutenant William Calley, went berserk and raped and massacred a Vietnamese village . e. Operation Phoenix, 1968–1972 The CIA arrested and interrogated suspected VC 6. The US response: tactics a. Bombing e.g. Operation Rolling Thunder, fibre-glass cluster bombs b. High-tech weapons e.g. artillery, ‘hueys’ (helicopters), napalm (a petrol-based goo which burned) and Agent Orange (a defoliant to strip the leaves from the trees) c. Strategic Hamlets programme Hundreds of thousands of peasants were moved from Vietcong-controlled areas to live in ‘safe’ villages (which were, in effect, concentration camps) d. Search-and-destroy The aim of these patrols was to draw the Vietcong into an attack, when they could be destroyed by US air and artillery – they deteriorated into ‘Zippo Raids’ . e. Hearts and minds The US hoped to win ‘hearts and minds’ by building schools, roads and sewers, but the foreign occupation, strategic hamlets and atrocities made this impossible 7. My Lai Massacre, 1968: causes a. Tet Offensive, Jan–May 1968 The incident took place during the US counter-attack after Phase I of the Tet offensive – i.e. in a battle situation b. Hiding the 48th guerrillas US army intelligence believed that the Son My villagers were hiding the 48th Battalion of the VC (which had attacked US forces in Quang Ngai province) c. Captain Medina’s briefing Medina briefed the soldiers that by 7am all the villagers would have left for market so that only VC guerrillas would be left; they were ordered to ‘wipe them out’ d. Young soldiers The average age of US infantry was 19; particularly the inexperienced ‘cherries’ were unfit to fight the experienced and ruthless VC . e. Broken morale By 1968, especially after the success of the Tet offensive, US infantry morale was broken, with drugs common and instances of fragging and ‘working it out’ 8. My Lai Massacre: events and aftermath a. Lt Calley and Charlie Company, 16 Mar 1968 Calley and ‘C’ Company attacked the My Lai 4 hamlet of Son My village and massacred about 80 villagers b. My Lai and My Khe Other platoons, over the next two days, attacked other hamlets and killed villagers; in all 504 villagers were killed (US estimate 347) c. Hugh Thompson Hugh Thompson and his helicopter crew tried to prevent the massacre d. Initial cover-up for the press The initial press briefings claimed the company had done an ‘outstanding job’ killing ‘128 Viet Cong and 22 civilians’ during a ‘fierce fire fight’ . e. Seymour Hersh, Nov 1969 Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh published the story of the massacre in the US, leading to Calley’s conviction 9. US failures during the Vietnam War a. Body count and kill ratio US generals focused on ‘body count’ and ‘kill ratio’ – they made no progress towards defeating the enemy b. Mistakes US tactics often misfired – for instance when US bombers dropped napalm on ‘friendly’ villages by mistake c. Zippo Raids Search and Destroy was simply using US infantry as ‘bait’ (US morale fell); the raids often deteriorated into ‘Zippo Raids’ d. Atrocities There were a number of atrocities (e.g. the My Lai Massacre, 1968) . e. Hearts and minds failed Foreign occupation, strategic hamlets, Operation Phoenix and atrocities such as My Lai made the US hated, however many hospitals they built 10. Media coverage of the war: facts a. The Green Berets, 1968 Up to 1968, the media (e.g. the film The Green Berets with John Wayne) showed American soldiers as kind humanitarians fighting a brutal and cruel enemy b. Walter Cronkite during the Tet Offensive, Jan 1968 Seeing Vietcong guerrillas capture the American Embassy in Saigon, TV newsman Walter Cronkite said: ‘What the hell is going on? I thought we were winning’ c. Life in the V Ring, Feb 1968 In February 1968, John Wheeler wrote Life in the V Ring, describing the hardship and anger of the American troops in Vietnam d. Seymour Hersh, Nov 1969 Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh published the story of the My Lai massacre; it undermined the US’s ‘moral right’ to be in Vietnam . e. Credibility gap A ‘credibility gap’ opened up between what the US government was saying about the war, and what the public felt about it 11. US protest movements, 1968–1973 a. Vietnam Day Committee, 1965 In 1965, a student group called Vietnam Day Committee held a ‘teach-in’ against the war; in 1967, 100,000 people went on a protest march to the Lincoln Memorial b. Martin Luther King, 4 Apr 1967 In 1967, Martin Luther King opposed the war on the ground of its cost; the money should be spent on reducing poverty at home, he said c. Muhammad Ali refused the draft, 28 Apr 1967 The Nation of Islam asked why black boys should die for a country which would not grant them equal rights; NoI member Muhammad Ali refused to be drafted d. Kent State University, 1970 In 1970, students at Kent State University, Ohio, protested against the US bombing of Cambodia . e. War veterans, 1971 In 1971, war veterans went on an anti-war march, and threw away their medals 12. Public reaction to My Lai: events a. Initial complaints were ignored, 1968–1969 Thompson’s report and letters written by other witnesses to President Nixon, Senators and Army chiefs were ignored b. Seymour Hersh, Nov 1969 Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh published the story of My Lai; the US public were horrified – it undermined the US’s ‘moral right’ to be in Vietnam c. Calley’s court martial, Nov 1970 A number of officers were charged but only one stood trial (he was acquitted) – Calley was found guilty of murder and sentenced to hard labour for life d. Nixon released Calley, Mar 1971 80% of Americans disapproved of Calley’s conviction, and President Nixon stepped in to reduce his sentence to 3½ years house arrest . e. Medina standard, Aug 1971 Although Captain Medina was found not guilty, the court declared that a soldier, being aware of a war crime, is criminally liable (and not just his commander) 13. Kent State protest, 1970: causes a. Seymour Hersh, Nov 1969 Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh had published the My Lai story; it outraged student opinion and undermined the US’s ‘moral right’ to be in Vietnam b. President Nixon’s draft lottery, Dec 1969 In order to reduce anger at the unfairness of the draft, Nixon had introduced a lottery system; this had led students to hope the war was coming to an end c. Weathermen bombings, Mar 1970 Anti-Vietnam protests reached a high with a bombing campaign waged by an extreme student group called the ‘Weather Underground’ d. Cambodia incursion, 30 Apr 1970 US forces escalated the war, attacking Vietcong bases in Cambodia . e. Anti-war demonstrations, 2 May 1970 There were violent ant-war demonstrations at universities across the US 14. Kent State protest: events a. Cambodia incursion, 30 Apr 1970 US forces escalated the war, attacking Vietcong bases in Cambodia b. Friday: Demonstration and riots, 1 May 1970 A peaceful demonstration of about 500 students was followed by riots that night in town; the police declared a state of emergency c. Saturday: the National Guard, 2 May 1970 Protestors set fire to the Reserve Officer Training Crops building and stoned police and firemen; Governor Rhodes called in the National Guard d. Sunday: bayonets, 3 May 1970 A demonstration was dispersed with tear gas; a curfew was announced and at 11pm students were forced back into their dorms at bayonet-point (some were stabbed) . e. Monday: 4 shot dead, 4 May 1970 When a violent crowd of 2000 refused to disperse, 29 Guardsmen fired 67 rounds into the crowd, killing four (including 2 bystanders) and wounding 9 15. Kent State protest: results a. Public response Most Americans blamed the students; President Nixon said they were Communists; in New York construction workers held a ‘Hard Hat Riot’ in support of the war b. Student strike 4 million students went on strike at 900 universities c. Washington demonstrations, 9 May 100,000 people protested in Washington; the protest became so violent that the President had to go to Camp David d. President’s Commission on Campus Unrest, Jun 1970 It found the Guardsmen guilty of indiscipline and ordered that the National Guard should never be issued with loaded rifles confronting students . e. Wisconsin bombing, Aug 1970 Anti-war protests became much more violent; in August 1970, a van filled with explosives was blown up at the University of Wisconsin 16. The Fulbright Hearings: events a. Capitol bombing, Mar 1971 A Weatherman bomb in the Capitol in Washington caused $300,000 damage b. Veterans against the War, Apr 1971 Vietnam veterans camped in Washington, and threw away their medals c. 22 hearings on 7 proposals, Apr–May 1971 The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held 22 hearings on 7 proposals to withdraw from Vietnam d. Fulbright’s opening remarks, 20 Apr 1971 The Chairman, William Fulbright, openly opposed the war, and denied the right of the president to have taken the US into the war in 1964 . e. Troop withdrawals, 1972 After the hearings, Nixon began to withdraw troops from Vietnam; by the end of 1972, only 30,000 remained 17. Why the US lost the Vietnam War a. High-tech tactics American high-tech tactics failed to destroy the VC guerrilla forces b. 8,000 miles away America was fighting and supplying a war 8000 miles away c. Failure to win hearts and minds The South Vietnamese government was weak, brutal, corrupt and hated; the Americans’ cruelty and atrocities failed to ‘win hearts and minds’ d. Drugs, fragging and working it out US soldiers (especially the ‘cherries’) had low morale, with US soldiers going AWOL, taking drugs, ‘fragging' (killing their officers) and ‘working it out’ (negotiating orders) . e. Opposition in America to the war Particularly horror at soldiers being returned home in body bags and incidents such as the My Lai massacre and the Kent State shootings 18. Why the Vietcong won the war a. Vietcong guerrilla tactics VC guerrilla tactics won the war b. Supplies from China and Russia The VC were supplied by China and Russia down the Ho Chi Minh trail c. Patriotism and motivation The Vietnamese were fighting a patriotic war of liberation d. Ruthless and experienced soldiers The VC had been at war since 1945; they were fanatically dedicated fighters, surviving horrific conditions in the tunnels . e. South Vietnamese peasants helped them South Vietnamese peasants supported and helped the VC 19. The Tet Offensive, 1968: facts a. General Thanh’s offensive VC militants, led by General Thanh, argued that the guerrilla war being waged by General Nguyen Giap was too slow, and called for a large-scale attack b. Vietnamese New Year The Vietcong had offered a truce for the Vietnamese New Year (Tet) celebrations, so half the South Vietnamese army (ARVN) was on leave c. Tet attack, 31 Jan 1968 On 31 January 1968, 84,000 Vietcong troops attacked a hundred towns and cities across South Vietnam; they mounted two more attacks in May and August d. Initial success – Saigon and Hue At first, the attack was spectacularly successful: a 15-man suicide squad captured the American Embassy in Saigon, and Hue was captured and held for 25 days . e. Failure The Americans could defeat a conventional, non-guerrilla attack; the Vietcong lost 58,000 killed, including many officers 20. The Tet Offensive: results a. Vietcong losses The Vietcong lost 58,000 killed, including many officers b. Vietcong capacity damaged It was months before they could mount a military operation, and morale was damaged. The NVA declared: ‘Never again will we risk our entire army.’ c. South Vietnamese deaths and refugees The South Vietnamese lost 14,300 civilians killed, 70,000 homes destroyed and had to cope with 627,000 refugees d. American loss of confidence The Americans suffered relatively light military losses, but public confidence had a huge setback, and Americans realised they would never ‘win’ the war . e. Both sides lost It was the only battle that both sides lost 21. US withdrawal: facts a. Nixon Doctrine – Vietnamisation, 1969 Looking for a way out, Nixon began ‘Vietnamisation’ – i.e. leaving the war to the South Vietnamese army (the ARVN), but with US financial support b. Cambodia incursion, 1970 US forces escalated the war, attacking Vietcong bases in Cambodia c. Laos, 1971 US forces attacked Vietcong supply lines in Laos d. The Madman theory, 1972 The ‘madman theory’; Nixon tried to awe the Vietnamese into peace by making them believe he was capable of anything; he mounted a huge bombing campaign . e. Paris Peace Agreement, 1973 The Paris Peace Agreement (negotiated by Henry Kissinger) was signed; the US withdrew, American prisoners of war were released 22. Paris Peace Conference, 1973: facts a. Secret peace negotiations, Aug 1969 Secret peace negotiations between US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, and North Vietnamese government member Le Duc Tho b. VC Easter Offensive failed, Summer 1972 The VC had tried a conventional invasion which had been repulsed; the North realised it could not drive the Americans out by force c. Draft Peace Agreement, Oct 1972 Tho made an agreement that allowed the South Vietnamese government to stay in power, but withdrew when South Vietnamese President Thieu rejected the peace d. Christmas bombing campaign, Dec 1972 Nixon mounted a huge bombing campaign to force the North Vietnamese back to the Peace Conference (the ‘madman’ theory) . e. Paris Peace Agreement, 23 Jan 1973 The Paris Peace Agreement (negotiated by Henry Kissinger) was signed; the US withdrew, and American prisoners of war were released 23. The fall of Saigon, 1975 a. Paris Peace Agreement, 23 Jan 1973 The Paris Peace Agreement (negotiated by Henry Kissinger) was signed; the US withdrew, and American prisoners of war were released b. North Vietnamese invasion, Mar 1975 The NVA attacked South Vietnam (‘Campaign 275’); at first the ARVN fought back – refugees (the ‘Convoy of Tears’) fled south c. Congress refused military aid, 17 Apr 1975 The US Congress refused to fund President Ford’s request for a $1bn military and aid package for South Vietnam d. Thieu fell from power, 21 Apr 1975 South Vietnamese President Thieu fell from power, blaming the Americans for breaking their promise . e. Fall of Saigon, 30 Apr 1975 After a short war, the North Vietnamese entered Saigon – panic as Americans and pro-US Vietnamese tried to helicopter out

The Vietnam War [Revision Cascade]