League of Nations Cascade

League of Nations [Revision Cascade]

This Cascade will give you points and ideas for writing an answer about any of the topics in the list. And, when it comes to revision, you can use it to test your memory of the points and ideas you might want to raise in the exam. Click on the yellow arrows to reveal the paragraph points, and again to reveal ideas for developing the point. I have given you five points for every topic but, in practical terms for the exam, you will probably get away with remembering three or four.
1. Aims of the League of Nations a. Achieve international peace Article 15 promised not to resort to war, and article 16 promised to unite to act against aggressors (‘the community of power’) b. International Law Articles 12–14 set up a Permanent Court of International Justice, and promised to accept arbitration in the event of a dispute c. Mandates A Mandates Commission looked after Germany’s and Turkey’s colonies (article 22) d. Improve people's lives and jobs Articles 23–25 promised to secure fair conditions for workers (International Labour Organisation), and to fight against disease (Health Committee), slavery, drugs and the arms trade . e. Disarmament Articles 8–9 proposed to set up a Disarmament Commission 2. Membership of the League: facts a. Started with 42 members The League had 42 members at its first Assembly at Geneva, November 1920. b. USA was never a member The Senate rejected the Treaty in Mar 1920, and made separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary in Oct 1921 c. Enemy powers joined in the 1920s Austria and Bulgaria joined in 1920, Hungary in 1922, Germany in 1926 (= genuine ‘collective security’) d. Greatest number 58 in 1934 … including the USSR, which joined in 1934 . e. Fascist powers left in the 1930s Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy in 1937, Austria in 1938, Spain and Czechoslovakia in 1939 (= weakening of the League) 3. America failed to join: causes a. Isolationism Since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, the USA had tried to keep out of European affairs b. Deaths After the slaughter of the First World War, Americans did not want any more US soldiers dragged into European wars c. Cost American businessmen argued that sanctions would harm the American economy d. Dislike of the old Empires As a former colony, the US did not want to support the old empires of Britain and France . e. German immigrants America's German immigrants hated the Treaty of Versailles; American politicians did not want to lose their votes 4. America failed to join: events a. Public debate, Sep 1919 Both Wilson and the opponents of the Treaty of Versailles made national tours to advertise their cause; Wilson collapsed and suffered a stroke b. Lodge reservations, 6 Nov 1919 The Senate Foreign Relations Committee proposed to accept the Treaty of Versailles, but with 14 reservations proposed by Senator Lodge c. The Senate rejected the Treaty (first time), 19 Nov 1919 Wilson’s supporters defeated the Lodge reservations, but then the Senate rejected original Treaty d. Bipartisan Committee, Jan 1920 Further attempts were made for a compromise by Senators Hitchcock and Taft, supported by Britain and France, but Wilson refused to accept any reservations . e. Senate rejected the Treaty (second time), 19 Mar 1920 America made a separate treaty of peace with Germany, Austria and Hungary in October 1921 5. Organisation of the League a. Assembly The League’s main meeting, held once a year; all League nations could attend b. Council Met 4–5 times a year and in crises. Five permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, Japan, plus Germany after 1926) – each had a veto c. Secretariat Badly understaffed d. Agencies and Commissions e.g. International Labour Organisation, Health Committee, Mandates Commission, Slavery Commission, Refugees Committee – also the Permanent Court of International Justice . e. Conference of Ambassadors Informal meetings of the more important countries; not part of the League's official structures, but often made the decisions which the League then agreed – e.g. Corfu, 1923 6. Stopping war: how might the League stop wars? a. Covenant: Article 10 The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League b. Collective Security Countries did not need to build up their armies or go to war because the League would ensure their safety. c. Community of Power Wilson’s idea of the nations of the world, organised into a force to keep the peace. d. Moral Persuasion The idea that nations would step back from war when they felt the opposition of the nations in the League. e. Powers of the League – Covenant: Article 11 The League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. 7. Powers of the League a. Condemnation e.g. of Japan in 1932; the idea was that the 'community of power' could exercise 'moral persuasion' which would cause an aggressor to back down b. Arbitration e.g. between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands in 1921 c. Permanent Court of International Justice Nations could appeal to the court – e.g. the SS Wimbledon case in 1923 – but the court had no powers to enforce its decision d. Sanctions e.g. the sanctions against Italy over Abyssinia, 1935 . e. Armed force The League had the right to used armed force, but never did so, because the member states would have had to pay for their own armies 8. Peacekeeping: successes in the 1920s a. Teschen, 1920 Poland and Czechoslovakia fought over this area, which was rich in coal; in 1920 the League arbitrated on the dispute, splitting the area between the two countries. b. Aaland Islands, 1921 The League settled a dispute between Sweden and Finland – after an investigation it said the islands belonged to Finland; Sweden and Finland accepted this c. Silesia, 1921 The League settled a territorial dispute over Upper Silesia (rich in coal) between Germany and Poland – it held a plebiscite and suggested a partition; Germany and Poland agreed d. Bulgaria, 1925 Greece invaded Bulgaria, which appealed to the League; the League ordered Greece to withdraw, which it did . e. Iraq, 1926 The Turks demanded Mosul, a part of Iraq (a British mandate) which was rich in oil. The League supported Iraq/ Britain; Turkey agreed (Treaty of Ankara) 9. Peacekeeping: failures in the 1920s a. Vilna, 1920 The Poles captured Vilna (the capital of Lithuania); the League ordered Poland to withdraw but could do nothing when Poland refused b. Invasion of the Ruhr, 1923 French & Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr when the Germans did not pay reparations; the League was not even consulted c. Memel, 1923 Lithuania seized Memel, a German port under League control. The League told Lithuania to leave, but the Conference of Ambassadors gave Memel to Lithuania d. Corfu, 1923 Italy occupied Corfu; Greece appealed to the League, which ordered Mussolini to leave – but the Conference of Ambassadors overruled the League and forced Greece to pay compensation to Italy . e. Bolivia, 1928 Chaco War: a border dispute between Paraguay and Bolivia - Paraguay appealed to the League, but Bolivia refused to agree. A ceasefire was brokered by the USA, but full-scale war broke out in 1932 10. Other successes: in the 1920s a. Prisoners of War 400,000 Prisoners of War repatriated b. Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) Enforced the peace treaties, protected minorities, and judged on matters of international law – still important today c. International Labour organisation (ILO) Research & advice; Conventions on Minimum Wage and Social Insurance; campaigns on migration, hours of work, women & children -- still important today d. League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO) Work against leprosy (extermination of mosquitoes); Drugs companies blacklisted . e. Kellogg–Briand Pact, 1928 Sixty-five countries signed a treaty renouncing war as a means of national policy 11. Failures: Disarmament a. Article 8 Article 8 of the Covenant: to reduce armaments ‘to the lowest point consistent with national safety’. b. Washington Naval Conference, 1921 USA, Britain, and Japan tried to agree limits to their navies; fell apart when Japan demanded parity. c. Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments, 1921 Started discussing proposals such as prohibiting chemical warfare & the bombing of civilian populations, and limiting artillery & tanks. No decisions. d. Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 1926 Proposed to make a war of aggression illegal; if a country was attacked, all countries of the League would send troops to defend it. Fell apart when Britain refused to commit troops. e. Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments, 1932-33 In the planning since 1926! Made no progress and fell apart when Hitler demanded parity; he left the Conference and the League. All countries then started to re-arm. 12. Failures: Reparations a. Reparation Commission, 1921 Disagreed about the total sum and who should get what. In the end the ‘London Schedule’ compromise agreed £6.6bn, at at least £50 million a year – the rest as Germany could afford. b. Invasions of the Ruhr, 1921 & 1923 Germany defaulted almost immediately. In 1921 French, Belgians and British forces, and in 1923 French and Belgian forces, invaded the Ruhr (the coal-producing area of Germany) … this ruined the German economy, causing rebellions. c. The Dawes Plan, 1924 Germany only had to pay what it could afford (the ‘prosperity index’), the terms was extended indefinitely, and the USA gave Germany a huge loan. d. The Young Plan, 1929 Agreed a total final sum of £5.6bn, with a schedule of payments until 1988. A loan (the ‘Young Bond’) was floated. The Reparations Commission was disbanded. e. Lausanne Conference, 1932 After the Great Depression, it was proposed to abolish reparations on receipt of a final sum £150 million. It was never ratified, and Hitler stopped paying all reparations. 13. Failures: in the 1930s a. Manchurian Crisis, 1931–32 The League failed to prevent Japan conquering Manchuria and attacking China b. Abyssinia Crisis, 1935–36 The League failed to prevent Italy conquering Abyssinia c. Rhineland, 7 Mar 1936 The League failed to prevent Hitler re-militarising the Rhineland d. Austria, 11 Mar 1938 The League failed to prevent Hitler annexing Austria . e. Second World War, Sep 1939 The League failed to prevent the Second World War 14. Manchurian Crisis 1931–33: causes a. Depression of the 1930s Thousands of Japanese were impoverished; the Japanese solution was to get land in China b. Co-prosperity sphere The Japanese wanted to build up an empire in the Pacific which would provide raw materials for Japan's industries c. Army influence in Japan The army in Japan was growing increasingly powerful; the army in Manchuria ignored the Japanese government and attacked the Chinese d. China was weak The Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek was occupied by a war against the Chinese Communists . e. Mukden Incident, 18 Sep 1931 A small act of sabotage on the South Manchurian Railway near the town of Mukden gave the Japanese the excuse to blame the Chinese army and invade 15. Manchurian Crisis: events a. Mukden Incident, 18 Sep 1931 A small act of sabotage on the South Manchurian Railway near the town of Mukden; the Japanese, who controlled the railway, blamed the Chinese army, which was stationed nearby b. China appealed to the League, 19 Sep 1931 China appealed to the League, complaining about Japanese aggression c. Manchukuo set up, Feb 1932 After invading Manchuria, the Japanese set up Manchukuo as a puppet state under the deposed Chinese Emperor, Henry Pu Yi d. Lytton Report, Oct 1932 In December 1931, the League appointed a commission led by Lord Lytton to investigate; his report stated that Japan was the aggressor and should leave . e. Japan left the League, Mar 1933 Japan refused to accept the Lytton report (Feb 1932) and walked out of the League, led by Matsuoka Yosuke; Japan formally resigned from the League in 1933 16. Manchurian Crisis: consequences a. Japan left the League, Mar 1933 Japan refused to accept the Lytton report (Feb 1932) and walked out of the League, led by Matsuoka Yosuke; Japan formally resigned from the League in 1933 b. Japan invaded China, Jul 1937 Japan continued to increase its influence in northern China, ending in war and invasion in 1937 c. No sanctions against Japan ... and in fact the great powers continued to cooperate with the Japanese, who were asked to the Disarmament Conference and the World Economic Conference d. The League was weakened Japan had been one of the major powers in the League, with a seat on the Council . e. The League was humiliated The League was shown to be powerless in the face of a big country 17. Abyssinian Crisis 1935–36: causes a. Depression of the 1930s Thousands of Italians were impoverished; Mussolini's solution was to get an empire in Africa b. European arrogance Mussolini argued that the Abyssinians were backward, and that conquest by Italy would 'civilise' them c. Empire-building by Mussolini Mussolini wanted recreate the old Roman empire d. Manchuria The Manchurian Crisis had shown that the League was powerless to stop a big nation; Mussolini copied the Japanese . e. Wal-Wal Incident, Dec 1934 An army of 1000 Ethiopians clashed with an Italian army which had occupied a fort in Abyssinia in 'disputed' territory 18. Abyssinian Crisis 1935–36: events a. Wal-Wal Incident, Dec 1934 An army of 1000 Ethiopians clashed with an Italian army which had occupied a fort in Abyssinia in 'disputed' territory; Abyssinia appealed to the League, but the League could not make a decision b. Italy conquered Abyssinia, Oct 1935–May 1936 The Italian army used tanks and chemical weapons, and committed atrocities such as attacking hospitals c. Sanctions, Nov 1935 Not on oil or steel, neither was the Suez Canal closed – and sanctions were dropped in July 1936 after the Italians conquered Abyssinia . d. Hoare–Laval Pact, Dec 1935 A secret pact between Britain and France to give most of Abyssinia to Italy; it was denounced as a sell-out when it was leaked to the Press . e. Haile Selassie appealed to the League, Jun 1936 He was heckled and ignored 19. Abyssinian Crisis 1935–36: results a. Italy left the League, Nov 1937 Mussolini claimed that France and Britain were using the League as a 'screen' to work against Italy b. Italy conquered Abyssinia Abyssinia became part of Italy's empire in Africa c. Axis alliance Italy left the 'Stresa Front' alliance (of France, Britain and Italy) against Hitler, and allied instead with Germany (the 'Axis': 1 November 1936). d. The League died British historian AJP Taylor believed 'the League died in 1935'. e. Appeasement British Prime Minister Chamberlain (June 1936) acknowledged that collective security had failed, and turned instead to appeasement as a way to keep the peace 20. End of the League: events a. 'Reform' Committee Tried to adapt the League to the changed politics of the 1930s. It failed. Britain and a number of other countries contracted out of Article 16. A few countries left. b. New foreign policies Few countries left the League, but they made alliances, re-armed as fast as possible and prepared for war. c. Closure When War broke out in Sept. 1939, the League closed its offices in Geneva. d. Terhran Conference, 1943 America, the USSR and Britain agreed to setup a new international organisation - the 'United Nations', when the war finished. e. Last meeting The United Nations came into existence on 24 Oct 1945. On 12 April 1946 the League met and abolished itself. 21. Why the League failed a. Overambitious aims The League's aims (stopping war, disarmament and improving lives) were unachievable, created hopes which could never be fulfilled, and dashed them when it failed b. Weaknesses & failures The USA never joined. The League’s organisation was muddle, and it had no real powers and no army to enforce its decisions. The more the League failed, nations went back to building up their armies and making alliances c. Depression of the 1930s Economic problems made the fascist powers more expansionist, but France and Britain became desperate to avoid the expense of war . d. Betrayed by its members Japan and Italy defied the League, France and Britain (in the Hoare–Laval Pact of 1935) undermined it. . e. Impotent against big powers The League's powers of moral persuasion, arbitration and sanctions were useless against big powers such as Japan, Italy and Nazi Germany 22. Interpretations: Historiography a. Initial Support Edward A Harriman (1927) called it “one of the most important events in all history”. Frank Walters (1952) argued that the powers were to blame. b. Realism EH Carr (1940) blamed Wilson’s utopianism, saying it failed to see the reality that powers put their own interests first. Elmer Bendliner called the League “tragicomic” (1975), John Mearsheimer, “a spectacular failure”. Focus on why the League failed. c. AJP Taylor Taylor (1966) labelled the League “a useless fraud” and an “irrelevance” not worthy of study. Margaret Macmillan (2003): “only a handful of eccentric historians still bother to study the League". d. Revisionists Accepted that the League failed to prevent WWII, but Zara Steiner (2005), Peter Yearwood (2009) and Andrew Webster (2012) see it not as a substitute for realism, but as a valuable EXTRA way of multinational diplomacy. e. The ‘Third League of Nations’ Susan Pedersen (2013) found the agencies and committees of the League which dealt with transnational issues (e.g. the PCIJ, ILO, LNHO, Economic Committee, protection of ethnic minorities etc.) “expansive, flexible, creative and successful”. Antony Anghie (2004) suggested it laid the foundations of modern global institutions such as the World Bank. Ruth Henig (2019) concluded: “a bold step towards international cooperation”.